Television Violence Essay -- essays research papers fc

Television violence and its effects on viewers has been a controversial issue for many years. Some viewers believe that there is an increasingly large amount of violence on television and this widespread public concern has "led to calls for stricter controls on the depiction of violence in programmes" (Gunter and McAleer 1990:92). Exactly how much violence is there on television though? Many cultivation theorists have studied this, acquiring data in the form of content analysis. They agree on a definition of a violent act, for example Gerbner in his study used the definition, "an overt expression of physical force against self or other, compelling action against ones will on pain of being hurt or killed, or actually hurting or killing" (Gunter and McAleer 1990:94). This is an objective definition that can then be used to count the number of violent acts in whatever is being observed. Halloran and Croll (1972) used this technique to establish the amount of violence on British television in comparison with that of American television. For one week in April 1971, they observed the news, fictional drama, current affairs and documentaries on BBC1 and ITV Midlands and counted the number of violent incidents using Gerbner’s definition of violence. It was found that on average, 56% of British programmes contained some violence with four incidents of violenc e per hour. This was in comparison with American television which contained some seven incidents of violence per hour and where it was considerably more prevalent than on British television (Gunter and McAleer 1990:97). Focusing now on British television and violence, we can analyse Guy Cumberbatch’s research on television violence in 1987. He looked at all types of television programme focusing on four separate weeks between May and September 1986. All four channels were reviewed, totalling 1412 hours of television (930 BBC programmes and 1146 ITV and channel four programmes). He found, using his own definitions of a violent act, that 30% of all programmes contained some violence with an average of 1.14 acts of violence per programme (Gross 1992:455). It was also found that there was much more violence on television after 9pm and that violence was rare in children’s television programmes other than cartoons. It has been questioned however whether the violence in cartoons should actually b... ...er factors have also shown to be influential in this cause and effect relationship between television violence and violent behaviour. Such factors as age, gender, parental influence and amount of viewing contribute to how influential television violence is on an individual’s behaviour. Findings are still however inconclusive in this debate, although a large proportion of the evidence does appear to strongly favour the hypothesis that viewing violence on television does have an effect on a viewer’s violent behaviour. As a Washington Post article states "the preponderance of evidence from more than 3000 research studies over 2 decades shows that the violence portrayed on television influences the attitudes and behaviour of children who watch it" (Oldenburg 1992 cited at http://maple.lemoyne.edu/~hevern/ericdig.html). Bibliography Condry, J. (1989): The Psychology of Television. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Gross, R. (1992): Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Gunter, B. and McAleer, J. (1997): Children and Television. London: Routledge. Van Evra, J. (1990): Television and Child Development. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Essay on Biblical Imagery in King Lear -- King Lear essays

Biblical Imagery in Lear Had King Lear been exposed to Christian Scriptures, he may have learned the folly of his prideful demand that his daughters vocally profess their love.   The Scriptures clearly state that "if any tried to by love with their wealth, contempt is all they would get." (Sg 8:7) Of course, had King Lear read and abided by the Scriptures, we would be wanting of a great work of literature.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Lear's situation closely fits the passage from the Song of Songs. In applying the passage to his story, we must analyze the argument presented in the passage. We see that the argument follows the Modus Ponens form, containing a premise and a conclusion that logically follows. The argument is valid due to its form. However, we must determine the truth of the premise and conclusion in order to determine whether the statement applies to Lear. First, let us consider the premise: "if any tried to buy love with their wealth." Lear poses this question to his three daughters: Which of you shall we say doth love us most That we may our largest bounty extend Where nature doth with merit challenge. (I,i, 56-58) This question clearly links the profession of love, which Lear naively supposes to indicate actual love, with the reception of the "several dowers." (I,i, 47) This is further borne out in Lear's rash disinheritance of loyal, but silent, Cordelia. Lear continues to connect love with property as he warns Cordelia "nothing will come of nothing." (I,i, 99) When she persists in her speech, he further cautions her to "mend your speech a little / lest you may mar your fortunes." (I,i, 103-14) Lear's speech and behavior certainly ma... ...yal characters, with the exception of Albany who was miles away in Scotland, are out in the storm while the wicked daughters, treacherous Edmund and their conspirators are safely dry within Gloucester's castle. Only those who pass through water and are touched by the spirit of love and right judgment are able to achieve happiness.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   We now more fully see the rich imagery surrounding the love in King Lear. The passage from Song of Songs and the entire play of King Lear now combine to remind us of the enduring, free nature of true love and the dangers of relying on wealth to secure loyalty and affection. Shakespeare uses this theme elsewhere. Roderigo is unable to bribe Desdemona with his baubles. Neither is Duke Orsino able to woo the fair Countess Olivia with his prestige and wealth. Once again, we see that Shakespeare knew what he wrote.

Animal Abuse Awareness Essay -- Violence Papers

Animal Abuse Awareness â€Å"Ignorance is bliss.† Often times we hear that saying but never truly stop to think of its validity. Think of all the things we as mankind are unaware of. Obviously, there are a number of issues out there that people do not want society to know about. But when it really comes down to it, there isn’t much out there that we wouldn’t be able to learn about, if we really wanted to. Specifically pertaining to controversial or questionable public topics, the information is available to give people the options of learning more about them and forming opinions. This is where the saying â€Å"ignorance is bliss† comes in to play. How much do we as society really want to know? How curious are we to figure out just what animals go through when they are used to test toxins or cut up for coats? These are just two of many scenarios out there that animals suffer through but our society fails to acknowledge. We don’t focus on the negative aspects of th ese issues and others, because we are too dependent on the benefits that come from them. Members of an organization called People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) are out to end society’s ignorance in regards to the awareness of animal abuse. Their mission is to inform and convince people of animal rights. Participants hold the belief that animals have the right to be protected from being used for food, experimentation, clothing, and entertainment (PETA). There are a variety of ways the members of PETA try to get their mission and facts across. One major way they go about doing that is through the World Wide Web. PETA’s main website, www.PETA.org contains information about the cruelty of animal abuse in a variety of aspects, like those mentio... ...o end animal abuse would find the sites interesting and informative. In that retrospect, the website does do a good job in giving its intended viewers what they want to read about or see. Despite that, I think like any organization it is in their best interest to grow and expand, and they cannot do this without teaching the unknowledgeable public the facts they need to know. If they put more emphasis in that, perhaps their beliefs can become more widespread across the United States , and around the world. Works Cited â€Å"Cows are Cool.† 1 October 2003. â€Å"Kentucky Fried Cruelness.† PETA. 7 October 2003. â€Å"PETA Kids.† 1 October 2003. â€Å"PETA.† 1 October 2003. â€Å"PETA Unleashes Dogs on Iams.† PETA Main. 7 October 2003.

Machiavelli and Odysseus

Power and Leadership The Connection of Power and Leadership between The Odyssey and The Prince Research Assignment Stories in Diverse Media LAPS/HUMA 1780 Prepared for: Dr. Gillian Helfield Mr. Julian Manyoni Prepared by: Samuel James Ysip 212-697-983 Power and Leadership Power and leadership play a big role in accomplishing the objectives of a team. A person having these two attributes can direct a group of people towards achieving their common goal. These two components of authority are also essential to each other in order for the leader to be successful.Power is a person’s ability to influence others and leadership is a person’s talent to guide a group of people to achieve their common goal. A person that has power but without the capacity to make the right decisions for the team will definitely fail to lead a team to their goal and a person without the influence on others but with the talent to lead a team will sure not be able to implement the qualities of a great leader to a group. Homer’s The Odyssey and Machiavelli’s The Prince are two books that both contain themes about power and leadership.Homer’s The Odyssey contains information about Odysseus’ leadership capabilities during his journey home to Ithaca and how he reacted on different situations that involve critical leadership decisions. It also contains the status of his leadership in his homeland and what kind of monarchy he has. On the other hand, Machiavelli’s The Prince gives out information and guidelines on what a Machiavellian leader should be and how he should react in different kinds of situations. It also contains different theories on how the structure of a monarchy affects a ing’s superiority in his own kingdom. Throughout Odysseus’ journey, he made questionable decisions that contradict the teachings of Machiavelli. By not following the guidelines of Machiavelli on leadership and power management, as a result, Odysseus fail ed to lead his team safely back to Ithaca. Through Machiavelli’s theory, on could also argue that because of the structure of Odysseus’ kingdom in Ithaca, it resulted to the noble men in Achaea to take advantage of his absence, thus resulting to the exploitation of his land.The disobedience of Odysseus’ crew members to his orders resulting to their death, the act of contempt of Eurylochus against Odysseus and the effects of political structure in Ithaca to Odysseus’ supremacy as king are the three factors that constitute the power and leadership issues in The Odyssey which are connectedly criticized and discussed through the guidelines and theories of Machiavelli in The Prince. The disobedience of Odysseus crew members to his order of not eating the cattle of Helios which resulted to their death is the outcome of Odysseus’ failure to apply the teaching of Machiavelli about being compassionate or cruel.In chapter seventeen of The Prince, Machiavelli stated that, â€Å"A ruler mustn’t worry about being labelled cruel when it’s a question of keeping his subjects loyal and united . . . he will prove more compassionate than the leader whose excessive compassion leads to public disorder, muggings and murder. † (65). Odysseus’ compassion towards Eurylochus; a high ranking crew member that insults him and constantly tries to lure Odysseus’ crew members to disobey his orders, resulted to the death of the crew members and further delayed his return to Ithaca.Eurylochus’ exploitations in the story began to develop when they arrived at the island of Aeaea. Eurylochus disagreed with Odysseus’ decision to go back to Circes palace to have his men rest after a long travel. He then insulted Odysseus by saying, â€Å"So too it happened with the Cyclops, when our companions went into his yard, and the bold Odysseus was of their company; for it was by this man’s recklessness that these too perished. † (10. 435-438). These two incidents alone have enough grounds for Odysseus to take actions on Eurylochus’ obvious disregard of his authority.Odysseus considered killing him by taking his head off but he realized that he is related to Eurylochus by marriage and his men were also able to stop him by pleading to him. This confrontation is an evidence of Odysseus showing incorrect compassion towards Eurylochus. Although Odysseus showed a sign of disappointment, he never really punished him which led to more disobedience by Eurylochus. It also showed that he considers his men’s view of his actions. His actions confirmed that he would rather show compassion than cruelty by being stopped by his men from killing Eurylochus through their pleading.By not taking the necessary actions on Eurylochus’ behaviour, he was able to persuade Odysseus to land on the island of Thrinakia where Helios keeps his cattle despite Circes advice to stay away from Heliosâ₠¬â„¢ belongings. When they landed on the Island where the cattle are, Eurylochus again stirred up trouble by persuading the crew members that it’s fine to eat the cattle of Helios while Odysseus was asleep. Eurylochus said, â€Å". . . hunger is the sorriest way to die and encounter fate . . . let us cut out the best of Helios cattle and sacrifice them to the immortals who hold wide heaven . . . nd if we ever come back to Ithaca . . . we will build a rich temple to the Sun God Helios. † (12. 342-346). This final incident that Eurylochus was able stir up became the main reason of the crew members’ death and also Eurylochus. Odysseus should have made the right decision of eliminating Eurylochus when he first started to disregard his superiority on the Island of Aeaea. Odysseus also showed a sign weakness in his leadership when Eurylochus was able to persuade him to land on an island where the temptations are apparent despite the group and Eurylochus’ consta nt disobedience and the crew’s inability to avoid temptation.In the book Machiavelli on Modern Leadership, Michael A. Leeden stated that â€Å"Without fear of punishment, men will not obey laws that force them to act contrary to their passions. † (115). Odysseus’ lack of implementing punishment to his subjects made his crew men, particularly Eurylochus, more attracted to temptations and more convenient of violating not only Odysseus’ orders but also the gods’. Leeden also stated in his book that â€Å"to be an effective leader, the most prudent method is to ensure that your people are afraid of you.To instill that fear, you must demonstrate that those who attack you will not survive. † (126). This statement criticises Odysseus response to Eurylochus’ disobedience. Eurylochus challenged and ridiculed Odysseus’ leadership and authority during their stay on the island of Aeaea. He also questioned Odysseus decision of not wanting t o land on the island of Thrinakia although he was able to persuade him anyway. Odysseus failed to respond with effective force on these incidents which resulted to more disobedience. The system of uthority that Odysseus implemented over his subjects during their journey resulted to his men’s downfall and also his. By not applying the teachings of Machiavelli on how a leader should use power to appropriately perform cruelness or compassion to achieve a better and more disciplined kingdom, Odysseus showed unnecessary compassion to the wrong person; a sign of a weak leadership, thus resulting to the death of his whole crew and further delayed his return to Ithaca. Odysseus’ leadership flaws do not stop on his lack of control over his subjects.He also made terrible judgements that led to the death of some of his companions that consequently resulted to the lost of their trust to his leadership. Because of these bad decisions, Eurylochus; Odysseus’ second in command, found the courage to challenge his leadership. In The Prince, Machiavelli stated that, â€Å". . . when there is no threat from outside, a ruler must take care that his subjects don’t start conspiring against him. He can guard against this by making sure he isn’t hated or despised and that people are happy with him† (73).One reason of Eurylochus’ voice of displeasure with Odysseus’ leadership is because of Odysseus’ foolishness and stubbornness. On the Island of Cyclopes before Odysseus took his men to the cave, he stated that â€Å"my proud heart had an idea that presently I would encounter a man who was endowed with great strength, and wild, with no true knowledge of laws or any good customs. † (9. 213-215). On their way to the Cyclops’ cave, Odysseus knew himself that danger is on their way yet he still made careless decisions when they get there.Instead of quickly taking all the things they needed inside the cave and despi te his men’s persuasions, he still decided to wait for Polyphemus to arrive because he personally wanted to try his luck if the Cyclops would actually welcome them inside. Odysseus stated that â€Å"From the start my companions spoke to me and begged me to take some of the cheeses, come back again, and the next time to drive the lambs and kids from their pens, . . . but I would not listen to them . . . not until I could see him, see if he would give me presents. † (9. 224-229).The fact that Odysseus is a known tactician, one could argue that his companions’ simple strategy is far much better than Odysseus naive idea of trying his luck with the Cyclops. Although Odysseus’ cunnings got him out of the cave after getting trapped, the consequences of his foolish curiosity in regard to the death of his comrades and the lost of trust of his comrades, outweigh the benefits of his cunnings. Odysseus stubbornness and foolishness led to the death of six of his men a nd this gave Eurylochus one of the reasons to go against his authority.The incident on their way out of Island of the Cyclopes also added fuel to the fire when Odysseus provoked Polyphemus by shouting to him. His crew members yet again pleaded to him, â€Å"Hard one, why are you trying once more to stir up this savage man . . . † (9. 494-495). They also mentioned that because of Odysseus’ provocative actions, the Cyclops threw big rocks at them and led the ship back to the shore and almost got them caught and get killed. This declaration by his crew members is a sign of their disappointment with Odysseus’ leadership.It shows that they are concerned with how Odysseus constantly putting them in harm’s way by being out of control. Another sign of their dissatisfaction is when the notion of unfairness came into their minds when they foolishly opened the bag of wind that sent them back to Aiolian Island. His companions stated that Odysseus â€Å"is bringing h ome with him handsome treasures . . . while we, who have gone through everything he has on the same venture, come home with our hands empty. † (10. 40-43).This action by the crew members shows a symptom of mutiny against a leader that is supposed be trusted and respected by his subjects. It also signifies that Odysseus has lost his connection with his crew men and they don’t see him anymore as one of them. In an article by Elihu Rose, he claimed that â€Å"Mutiny begins with grievances over some existing or threatened condition. The question then may be posed as to whether those grievances, legitimate or not, were ultimately addressed and, if so, to what degree . . . † (572).This statement supports the idea that mutiny is indeed the result of lack of acknowledgement by the people who are responsible to address the internal issues of an organization. It applies to Odysseus’ constant disregard of his crew members’ pleadings which resulted to him putti ng his crew members into situations that they didn’t wish to go through. According to Machiavelli, â€Å". . . one of the most powerful preventive measures against conspiracies is simply not being hated by majority of people. People planning a conspiracy must believe that killing the ruler will be popular . . † Eurylochus knew the disappointment of the crew members on Odysseus’ leadership. This gave him the further courage to voice out his displeasure on Odysseus’ authority knowing that the crew members also have an issue with the way Odysseus handled situations. It also gave him the courage and the capability to persuade the crew members to disobey Odysseus’ orders of not eating the cattle of Helios. Machiavelli’s advice to a king of keeping his subjects satisfied or simply not despise him to avoid contempt or mutiny certainly didn’t apply to Odysseus leadership.The stubbornness of Odysseus along with his inability to create a cohesi ve relationship among his crew resulted into disappointment inside his circle which paved the way for Eurylochus to contempt against his authority. Lastly, the capability of the noble men to threaten his throne and exploit his belongings could be argued as the result of the political structure of Odysseus’ kingdom. Chapter four of The Prince discusses the advantages of appointing ministers and the disadvantages of a kingdom with nobles.Machiavelli stated that, â€Å"These barons have their own lands and their own subjects who recognize the barons as their masters and are naturally loyal to them. Where a state is governed by a king and his ministers the king is more powerful since he is the only person in the state whom people recognize as superior. When they obey someone else it is only because he is minister or official and they have no special loyalty to him† (16). In other words, Machiavelli suggests that because the nobles have their own power inside a king’ s monarchy, they’re more likely to disobey or be mutinous against a king’s authority.On the other hand, a monarchy that has ministers instead of barons, gives the king the security of not having any defiance against his superiority. In The Odyssey, Achaea is a land filled nobles. It is known in the story that Odysseus did not appoint any ministers or any sort of authority to secure his throne in Ithaca from any threats while he is gone to war. This signifies that his power over the people of Ithaca is not absolute or in other words, the foundation of his power is fragile once a certain threat to his power comes in.In The Prince, Machiavelli claimed that the nobles are more likely to be corrupted by foreign forces because they are hard to please and are always eager for a change in leadership. This suggests that even if Odysseus came back to Ithaca on time, his authority is not secured from any internal or external forces (e. g. the nobles or other kings) that wanted to challenge it and much more worst if he actually have died in the war. In The Odyssey, Telemachus stated that, â€Å"It is not bad to be a king . . . in fact there are many other Achaian princes, young and old, in sea girt Ithaca, any of who might hold this position, now hat the great Odysseus has perished. † (1. 393-396). This statement by Telemachus; son of Odysseus, is a confirmation that Odysseus throne is in fact open for any internal or external forces (i. e. suitors Inside or outside of Ithaca) to occupy without any prohibition. According to Machiavelli, â€Å". . . there will always be barons ready to assume authority when circumstances swing their way . . . † (18). Odysseus’ absence in Ithaca and the inexistence of authority gave the noblemen the chance to do whatever they want in his land, consequently giving the noble men their chance to finally occupy his throne.An example of this is the persistence of the Achaean noble men to take his throne by marr ying his wife; Penelope, despite her obvious intension of not wanting to marry. Another result of lack of authority in Ithaca is the constant abuse of his property in the hands of the noble men by uncontrollably devouring his livestock and wine. Although Telemachus tried to appeal to the suitors by holding an assembly with all the suitors and the Achean elders, it was not enough to get the suitors out of his land. Telemachus stated that â€Å"We have no man here such as Odysseus was, to drive this curse from the household.We ourselves are not the men to do it . . . not men well seasoned in battle. † (2. 58-61). Although Telemachus has the right to be aggravated with the suitors’ spoilage of his belongings, there is no authority or power in his kingdom beyond his capability that could demand the suitors out of his land. Without Odysseus, the noblemen hold the power on the land and are pretty much entitled to enforce their own rules. In the book Greek Political Thought b y Ryan Balot, he stated that, â€Å"Odysseus was like a father to his people who protected them from foreign enemies, from less restrained aristocrats . . When Odysseus left Ithaca, everything went downhill, because of the greed and hubris of wealthy well-born men without a sense of decency . . . Meanwhile, the political community could exert some – though not enough – pressure on these aristocrats to amend their behaviour. . . as long as Odysseus was gone, those who would normally have been in charge were left with pious hopes that the gods would rescue them. Therefore . . . the well being of Ithaca depended on Odysseus return and his forcible reassertion of his power. † (32).This statement by Balot supports the argument that the inexistence of ministers who play as the second in command of the king makes the monarchy vulnerable not only from the nobles but also from external threats. Without the authority of appointed ministers who play as the second in comman d of the king, it makes the noble suitors subsequent to Odysseus in the hierarchy of power in Ithaca. With the little gap between the powers of a king and noblemen, it makes it easier for the noblemen to enforce their authority in a kingdom when the power of a king is inexistent.Balot’s view of the situation in Ithaca also supports the idea that Odysseus’ authority in his kingdom is not supreme amongst all the people under his authority and it is just a matter of chance before the noblemen defy him. Machiavelli’s theory about the advantages of ministers and the disadvantages of having noblemen in a monarchy certainly applies to the structure of Odysseus’ monarchy. With the kind of monarchy that Ithaca has, Odysseus’ superiority in his land is undeniably vulnerable from the defiance of the ambitious and opportunistic noblemen.The inexistence of legitimate authorities like the ministers who play as the second in command of the king to provide governa nce all over the land and also as the king’s safeguard from any mutiny makes the supremacy of Odysseus as a king of Ithaca questionable. A leader’s utilization of both power and leadership is the sole reason for an organization to succeed or fail. A leader that lacks either one of these elements is most likely to fail on directing a group to achieve the group’s common objective including the leader’s own personal goal.The issues of power and leadership throughout Odysseus journey in The Odyssey are linked to the ideologies and guidelines of Machiavelli’s The Prince on how a king can efficiently apply his power and leadership to maintain a well-organized and successful monarchy and what kinds of circumstances can affect a king’s supremacy to his own kingdom. Throughout Odysseus journey, he showed manners of leadership that contradicted the guidelines of Machiavelli of how a king should react in different situations that involve a critical lea dership decisions.Odysseus’ too much compassion towards his crew members contradicts the advice of Machiavelli on why it is better for the leader to be feared than loved. His inappropriate compassion towards his crew members led to their rebellion against his authority which consequently led to their own destruction. Odysseus perhaps wanted to be viewed as a compassionate leader, therefore loved by his people, instead of being viewed as a cruel but effective dictator. But according to Leeden â€Å"Indeed, if you are feared, your followers will always find reasons to love you. †(128).Odysseus recklessness also resulted to the contempt of his second in command, Eurylochus. Machiavelli stated that a king should have the characteristics of both fox and lion to avoid traps and scare out enemies. Although there is no doubt that Odysseus is a courageous warrior and at the same time cunning, he showed at times that he only utilizes the qualities of a lion but lacks or disregar ds the qualities of a fox, thus resulting to his crew members frustration of his actions. An example is when he courageously waited for Polyphemus despite knowing the fact that he’s an unlawful monster.Machiavelli stated that those kings that only rely on qualities of a lion have no idea what they’re doing. The structure of Odysseus’ monarchy is also discussed in Machiavelli’s The Prince. Machiavelli’s view on why a king is better off with a monarchy with appointed ministers than a monarchy with ruling noblemen can certainly be applied to the struggle of power in his land, Ithaca. The situation in Ithaca proves that Machiavelli’s view on the importance of ministers and the disadvantages of having noble family in a monarchy is accurate.These issues of power and leadership in The Odyssey created the consequences that plagued Odysseus, his crewmen and his wife and son throughout the story. The rebellion of his crewmembers is the result of Odyss eus’ failure to apply an efficient leadership along with his power, consequently resulting to his authority over his men to diminish as well. The effect of the political structure to Odysseus’ supremacy in Ithaca is unchangeable, thus making him an inevitable victim of an unavoidable circumstance.However, If Odysseus followed the guidelines of Machiavelli on how an ideal king should lead, Odysseus could have saved some of his crew members and achieved their ultimate common goal and that is returning to Ithaca safe and sound. Bibliography Balot, Ryan. Greek Political Thought. Blackwell Publishing, 2006. 32. Print. This text contains a thorough history of ancient Greek political thought. It examines different kinds of ancient text (e. g. The Odyssey) in order to clearly demonstrate the political thought and structure of ancient Greece during its time. It also studies the connection between politics and ethics in ancient Greece.Part of this text studies the tendencies of the noblemen to revolt against a ruler. Balot stated that the aristocrats often sought for political connection outside a king’s monarchy to gain additional political connection that could possibly help them attack their own government. It also contains Balot’s view of the situation in Ithaca when Odysseus power is inexistent. Balot stated that Odysseus existence as a king is the only thing that hinders the â€Å"less-restrained† aristocrats from doing what they wish to do in his land. Homer. The Odyssey of Homer. Trans. Richmond Lattimore.New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. , 1967. Print. The poem The Odyssey tells the story of Odysseus’ journey back to his kingdom after the Trojan War. It describes the trials and the consequences that Odysseus had to go through trough out his journey. This text relates to my essay about â€Å"Power and Leadership† because it exhibits Odysseus’ leadership capabilities on different kinds of situations ( e. g. Odysseus leadership in the island of the Cyclops) throughout his travel. This text is relevant to my argument because it contains incidents that required Odysseus to make leadership decisions.An example of these incidents is when he decided to wait for the Cyclops despite his crew members’ request of leaving the cave. By using these incidents in The Odyssey, it will help me apply the guidelines of Machiavelli on how a king should respond in different kinds of situations that required critical leadership decisions. Ledeen, Michael. Machiavelli on Modern Leadership. New York: Truman Talley Books and St. Martin's Griffin, 1999. 112-149. Print. This book studies the lessons of Machiavelli on leadership and how they can be applied to modern politics. Michael A.Ledeen’s personal view on the importance of Machiavellian leadership will be used as a tool to back up my claims on why the consequences that Odysseus suffered throughout his journey were the results of his lead ership decisions that contradicted the guidelines of Machiavelli. In one case in the book that indicates the importance of inserting fear in the people under one’s leadership, Leeden uses George Washington as an example by illustrating how the former U. S. president used his army to control the citizens who were against the idea of paying excise tax on their liquor.Machiavelli, Niccolo. The Prince. Trans. Tim Parks. Great Britain: Penguin Books Ltd, 2009. Print. This book by Machiavelli instructs the readers of the guidelines of how a â€Å"Prince† should lead and overcome adversaries or conflicts the Machiavellian way. It relates to my topic of â€Å"Power and Leadership† because it contains ideologies of how leaders should react or demonstrate power when threatened by internal or foreign forces. This text also discusses different circumstances that could affect a king’s superiority in his kingdom.The effect of the political structure of a king’s kingdom is an example of the topics that are discussed in this text that could be applied to the circumstance of Odysseus kingdom, Ithaca. This text will be the basis of my judgement on the rights and wrongs of Odysseus’ leadership. It will also be the basis of my evaluation on what Odysseus should have and should have not done on different situations throughout his travel. Rose, Elihu. â€Å"The Anatomy of Mutiny. † Sage. (1982): 572. Web. 25 Mar. 2013. ;http://afs. sagepub. com/content/8/4/561. full. pdf;. This article by Rose studies the reasons of mutiny in the military.It also explains the different kinds of mutinies, how the process of mutiny starts and how to end it. It also contains examples of passed mutinies from sixteenth century French monarchy. This article is essential to the argument of why Odysseus’ inappropriate actions in the land of the Cyclopes have made his crewmen disappointed which led to the act of contempt of Eurylochus against him. Its explanation of how mutiny starts supports the argument that Odysseus’ action against the will of his crewmen is the primary reason why his subordinates rebel against his authority in their journey.

Hottie Hawgs Bbq Case Study

Hottie Hawg’s Smokin’ BBQ Case Study Team 16 Strengths: * NASCAR Partnership * Excellent food * Differentiated brand * Creativity of owners * Excellent marketing * Low infrastructure costs * Mobile restaurant * Little brand competition * Service flexibility * Proprietary recipes * Community support/interests * Professional marketing image Weaknesses: * Lack of cash flow * Leadership working for two companies * Loss of founder means all lies on Vaughn * High travel costs for events outside of Atlanta * Licensing decision reduces the opportunity of franchise income * Limited distribution capabilities Expansion is expensive * Non-centralized staff * Lack of business credit * Limited menu * Use of ACT funds to finance HHBBQ operations pierces the corporate veil. * Limited catering experience Opportunities: * Aramark/Pepsi Center opportunity * NASCAR as growth partner * Growth within Atlanta * Brand awareness through additional licensing and potential franchising * Merchandi se sales * Brick-and-mortar Flagship locations * Popularity of Food Trucks Threats: * Hooters Restaurants * Other barbecue restaurants * Customer reluctance to patronize a polarizing brand * Loss of trade-secret information Legal costs * Economic downturn/slow economic growth * Rising fuel and transportation costs * Pitmasters BBQ uses similar logo and brand image: 1. If you were in Kyle Vaughn’s position, which strategic option would you take? Explain your reasoning. Hottie Hawg’s Smokin BBQ was presented with an opportunity for tremendous growth early on in the life of the company that would test the limits of HHBBQ’s ability to raise capital, produce the quantity of food required and maintain the quality of the product while protecting the brand name and mark they had worked to cultivate.The Aramark/Pepsi Center contract would guarantee HHBBQ at least 100 events, projected at 16,000 people per event, and make HHBBQ the exclusive BBQ vendor for the arena. We b elieve of the two strategy alternatives HHBBQ had, the correct choice would be to pursue the Aramark contract. As a company that is looking to expand, passing up an opportunity of this magnitude might not occur again. Either of these two strategies are viable and possess pros and cons, but pursuing the Aramark contract would grant HHBBQ more potential rewards than passing.HHBBQ has already worked with one professional sport in NASCAR and the opportunity to serve customers of the NBA and NHL are markets that are too valuable to pass on. Once the decision to accept the Pepsi Center deal is made, HHBBQ will face more decisions on how best to handle supplying the needed food for the events. HHBBQ would have to re-locate the â€Å"18 Squeeler†, an open-air smoker on wheels, to Denver to prepare the BBQ or rent a local kitchen until a permanent commissary was set up.HHBBQ faced legitimate concerns regarding the ability of the Squeeler to meet the high food demand of the Pepsi Cente r and whether the legal costs, potential loss of food quality and possibility of compromising the brand image when dealing with a rented kitchen would make the deal not profitable. From the case study, the first 18 Squeeler was available one week after the initial conversation between Vaughn and Rybka. To meet the demand of the Pepsi Arena, HHBBQ should purchase an additional Squeeler so the food quantity and quality are not compromised.Once cash flow has begun and enough capital is raised to open a Denver commissary, the two Squeelers would be freed up to once again to perform at local events within the community and allow one Squeeler to return to Atlanta to service the home market. These are challenges that service firms face when attempting to match their products to the needs of their target markets (Ferrell & Hartline, 197). HHBBQ will experience on the job training while learning how to best forecast the correct amount of food needed to serve the arena and the number of new e mployees to hire and train to accommodate the number of visitors to the arena.Because most services are dependent upon people (employees, customers), HHBBQ must avoid past mistakes in variations in quality and inconsistency such as overstaffing, food waste, and less than ideal image promotion (Ferrell & Hartline, 198) to maintain high service quality and profitability. Although service quality is a subjective phenomenon (Ferrell & Hartline, 198),   this particular marketplace would not allow for service customization but allow HHBBQ to focus on food quality and speed of service to meet their customers’ needs. . Comment on the decision to license the Hottie Hawg’s brand rather than enter into a franchise agreement with Seymour. In the company’s situation, is it better to promote easier expansion through franchising or maintain tight control over brand image through licensing? Explain. At this early stage in Hottie Hawg’s Smokin’ BBQ’s histo ry, it is important to cultivate the brand image carefully and with almost obsessive attention to detail.The offering of tasty barbecue served by attractive women in a fun and laid-back environment is in its introductory stage (Ferrell & Hartline, 217), and will soon move into the growth stage if all goes well. Hottie’s must work to grow and build brand equity and establish a differential advantage in the market. This is done through careful management of the product and brand over this time. Public relations, advertising and incentives are critical at this stage in the brands life, as it sets the tone for the growth and maturity stage.Will this be just another barbecue joint or will Hottie’s stand out among a sea of ribs and wings? Rybka initially envisioned a brand so â€Å"extreme and offensive (as) to purposely alienate a large portion of the population† (Ferrell & Hartline, 519)   Allowing a franchisee to potentially dilute this brand is a risk they shoul d not be willing to take. The branding strategy employed by HHBBQ depends on the extreme offensiveness they are building, and a franchisee that doesn’t have the same â€Å"tough guts† that Vaughn and Rybka have may not be capable of sticking to their vision.Vaughn has done an excellent job thus far in developing a different style of BBQ restaurant in the southeast, and should protect the emerging brand image fiercely in order to maintain and develop according to the company’s vision. A license agreement, where complete control can be exercised over the quality of the food, the brand image, logos and marketing materials allows Vaughn to control the direction of the company, while realizing income from licensed sales.The brand is the most valuable asset to this emerging company; in fact, the brands image was â€Å"the cornerstone of the company’s success thus far† according to Lee, and therefore, should remain the top priority at this stage in the ga me (Ferrell & Hartlien, 526). It should also be noted that by licensing the product rather than franchising, HHBBQ has been able to avoid many unnecessary expenditures that go along with franchising. Had they sold Seymour a franchise, they may have had to invest more in him in terms of training, product knowledge, and other resources that HHBBQ cannot spare at the current time.Licensing provided Seymour an avenue to invest without much overhead expense, and still provided HHBBQ with licensing revenue and fees. 3. Assume that Hottie Hawg’s is successful with the Aramark/Pepsi Center opportunity. What should Vaughn’s next move be to continue that growth and success? Vaughn’s efforts, with the success of the Aramark/Pepsi venture will have resulted in the beginning of the growth stage of HHBBQ BBQ. This continuing growth stage has happened because sales increases will have been occurring rapidly due to the appeal of the product (Ferrell & Hartline, 219).Additionall y, Hottie Hawg’s BBQ will want to 1. â€Å"Establish a strong and defensible market position† and 2. Earn profit to repay debts as well as enough profit to justify moving forward with the business (Ferrell & Hartline, 219). In order to do this, Vaughn’s next moves should be to pursue one flagship brick & mortar location, more   18 squeelers to expand the reach of the product line, look for more venue arrangements that could be profitable, potentially pursue venture capital, and pursue more licensing agreements. Pursuing a flagship brick & mortar restaurant should be an important next step for Vaughn.Up to this point, Vaughn has not built a brick & mortar location because traditional storefronts require heavy upfront investment costs (Ferrell & Hartline, 521). However, with the cash flow that a successful Aramark/Pepsi Center opportunity will bring, it will be the right time to invest in a flagship location. A major benefit to creating a flagship store front in Atlanta, GA will be that HHBBQ will be able to finally focus some resources on the opportunities in Atlanta for local catering parties and events in this major metropolitan area (Ferrell & Hartline522).This will create more cash flow for the company, and the increased presence in the Atlanta metropolitan area should help to strengthen the position of the company by fulfilling the event catering need that has not been met there as of yet (Ferrell & Hartline, 213). Purchasing more 18 squeelers to increase the reach of the product line should be a next step for Vaughn. The 18 squeeler was one of the first pieces of equipment bought by Rybka and has proven to be invaluable (Ferrell & Hartline, 519).This smoker allows HHBBQ to reach out to people over a wide geographic area, resulting in increased brand awareness which helps build more brand equity (Ferrell & Hartline, 205). Investing in more 18 squeelers will allow HHBBQ to continue expanding the awareness of its high quality product, which will help set up future associations and increased cash flow. In fact, the food truck industry, of which HHBBQ’s squeeler would be considered part, is growing at a rate of 18. % in North Florida which shows that there are still incredible growth opportunities in this arena, although competition is increasing as well (Haughney, 2). Vaughn should also look for more venue arrangements. These arrangements are great opportunities because they offer tremendous upside potential through solid revenues, profits, and exposure (Ferrell & Hartline, 525). Partnering with major arenas such as the Pepsi Center is ideal because massive amounts of people will see and try the product and take that favorable opinion about the brand home with them.HHBBQ is poised to increase cash flow considerably if they can establish similar arrangements with some of the NASCAR events that they are already affiliated with, other popular arenas such as the Amway Center in Orlando, FL, Turner Field in Atla nta, GA, or busy venues such as major zoos, amusement parks, or even in airports. Venture Capital is another way for HHBBQ may be able to help fund growth after the successful Pepsi Center opportunity. Selling a minority stake of the company for cash may be a very smart move in order to fund future growth.HHBBQ will have enough viability now that there will certainly be interested parties. Venture Capital firms, such as Seed Capital, which provides investment in new start-ups, exist to make a return on their investment (Haughney, 3). HHBBQ could fund major expansion with a large influx of cash, as well as hire more support staff to handle the increased demand for product. Increasing the amount of licensing agreements for HHBBQ is also a smart move. Licensing agreements allow HHBBQ to receive substantial cash flow while allowing the company to maintain quality control over both brand and product (Ferrell & Hartline, 524).These controls are still very important, because HHBBQ’s brand image and great tasting food help set the company apart from competitors. Additionally, HHBBQ currently only has a licensing agreement in the Denver, CO area which means that an incredible growth opportunity exists here. Adding a few other major markets would be a wise move to ensure viable cash flows for HHBBQ. 4. If the Aramark/Pepsi Center opportunity turns out to be unsuccessful, what should Vaughn do to ensure the ongoing viability of Hottie Hawgs?If the Aramark/Pepsi decision proves unsuccessful, then Hottie Hawgs would have the opportunity to focus on other investment opportunities. As they do not have an excess of cash flow, it is our belief that Hottie Hawgs would initially benefit from raising capital. This time would also allow the fledgling company to build experience, maturity, and further develop within the growth stage, while having the additional financial flexibility that would come with more capital. Once Hottie Hawgs has raised ample capital, they would the n be able to focus on licensing/franchising, and more â€Å"Squeelers†.This capital would also allow Hottie Hawgs to consider the possibility of a brick and mortar restaurant. Hottie Hawgs has already established that they can attain profitability with the â€Å"Squeelers† once they verify the proper amount of food necessary. So the investment or licensing in additional â€Å"Squeelers† units would allow them to effectively manage the company’s growth. If the decision were to prove unsuccessful, Hottie Hawgs could also take that opportunity to move their operations back to closer to their home base. Atlanta, which has a population of over four million, would be a prime location for Hottie Hawgs to grow.Atlanta, which is a major metropolitan market, hosts NASCAR, MLB, NFL, and NBA, all of which could be potential events or venues where Hottie Hawgs could find success. This would also allow Hottie Hawgs to continue to attend successfully proven events, in t heir proximity, like the Billfish Tournament in Panama City. As noted in the case, Eric Rybka’s initial approach for Hottie Hawg’s branding was to, â€Å"create enough negative publicity to make the brand infamous, and then slowly morph the brand enough to be mainstream†. To ensure viability, Hottie Hawgs can take this unsuccessful decision and turn it an opportunity.They would now have the ability to change their brand to a more mainstream and socially acceptable brand. As we know from our text, a brand is a combination of the company’s name, symbol, and design. Taking an opportunity to refine these would fit well into Eric Rybka’s initial intent and direction of the company. This unsuccessful decision can also be turned into an opportunity for Hottie Hawgs to consider improvements or revisions of existing products. As noted in our text, these improvements or revisions can create a â€Å"greater perceived value† for the customer.In these ch allenging economic times, Hottie Hawgs could also consider cost reduction strategies. As noted in our text, cost reduction strategies would allow Hottie Hawgs to maintain a level of performance, but do so, â€Å"at a lower price†. This would allow Hottie Hawgs to appeal to the most cost conscious customers, but maintain the level of performance that has brought them initial success. This strategy could be achieved by considering lower cost meat providers, lower priced ingredients, or reducing costs in other facets of the restaurant, such as plates, utensils, cups, or napkins.Hottie Hawgs could also consider a co-branding strategy. Hottie Hawgs could contract and have Coke and Hottie Hawgs brand marks on their cups. They could also co-brand with locally prevalent companies to put their advertising on Hottie Hawgs to-go bags or boxes, along with Hottie Hawgs brand marks. Overall, it is our determination that if the Aramark/Pepsi decision proves to be unsuccessful, Hottie Hawgs still has a multitude of opportunities to maintain viability. Hottie Hawgs can consider licensing/franchising opportunities.They can make a decision to raise capital to obtain more Squeelers. They can consider other venues, like Atlanta, with the reasons that we noted above. Lastly, they can consider reconfiguring some of their strategies, utilizing concepts from the text, that would allow them to refine some of their strategies in an effort to maximize the fulfillment of the customer’s needs, while attracting a greater customer base. Even if the Aramark/Pepsi decision is unsuccessful, that does not mean that Hottie Hawgs is void of alternatives that can allow them to maintain viability and rofitability. O. C. Ferrell & Michael D. Hartline: â€Å"Marketing Strategy, Fifth Edition†    2011 Haughney, Kathleen. â€Å"Keep On (Food) Trucking. †   850businessmagazine. com. 850 Business Magazine. Web. 02 March   2013. http://www. 850businessmagazine. com/index. php? option=com_content&view=article&id=601%3Akeep-on-food-trucking&catid=64%3Aq-and-a&Itemid=1 Couret, Jacques. ‘ARC: Metro Atlanta Population Hits 4. 17 Million† bizjournals. com. Web. August 09, 2012 http://www. bizjournals. com/atlanta/news/2012/08/09/arc-metro-atlanta-population-hits. html? page=all

Being an other Essay

In her essay â€Å"Being an Other† Melissa Algranati talks about how she didn’t know what race category she belonged to because of her ethnic background. Algranati’s father was born in Alexandria, Egypt and her mother was born in Maniti, Puerto Rico. She is a product of marriage, and her race is a Puerto Rican Egyptian Jew. She explains how her upbringing was different because of her parents’ different racial barriers. Algranati’s supports her issue and also gives emotional appeal about her childhood. By being different because she is a blend of multiple cultures Algranati and her parents had to face reality of growing up with a different ethnic background in America society. Algranati has a strong tone because she explains how she was faced with challenging her ethnicity. She really didn’t know what category she fell under from her being a mixture of races. â€Å"It was not until I took the standardized PSAT exam that I was confronted with the question: Who am I? (667). She was intertwined up and distraught because of herself identity. She felt lost because this was a moment of realization and there are a lot of issues circulating behind her race and ethnicity. Essentially, the only way she could classify herself was choosing â€Å"other†. When being intertwined in not knowing where you belong in society can be a great burden on someone. Furthermore, she’s really left with trying to figure out her true identity. Algranati connects with the reader by helping them understand her viewpoint of growing up in America with a different cultural background. With so many duel citizenships, because of parents from different traditions , life b ecomes complicated for Algranati and her family. â€Å"The only problem was that the difference in language and social status led â€Å"real† Americans not to consider them citizens† (668). With American society becoming more developed, the next generation is becoming programmed into thinking that certain cultures are below others, therefore confusing them and making them feel like they don’t belong. Algranati not only was from two different ethnicities but she had to deal with the humiliations and discrimination with her Puerto Rican and Jewish Heritage .Nevertheless, the issues behind color and a diverse background run very deep. Algranati states, that her mother was called a â€Å"white Hispanic† because of her outer appearance. She also says that once her mother’s English improved,  no one even noticed her true nationality unless she told them (669). People are quick to judge one another from the color of one’s skin. There are a lot of issues circulating behind race and ethnicity. For a country that is all about diversity and equal rights, it seems some cultures have an unfair advantage over others because of their cultural background. While a lot of immigrants feel they are being mistreated and denied opportunity to be a U.S. citizen, some children of different cultures feel they are being forced to suppress their ethnic backgrounds, to fit in with the dominating race in our society. The writer uses highly emotional language by describing how she was accepted in American society and later was rejected because of her cultural differences. In other words, Algranati was mistaken for another race. She states, how she was accepted by her friend’s father like a daughter until he realized her true uniqueness (670).Immigrants, end up becoming disliked and singled out because of their skin color or ethnicity. Because Algranati is of a different origin doesn’t mean that she should be treated unequal, no one wants to be separated from their social life. As a society most fear the unknown, but with everything changing drastically there is a lot of unknown. Society is already struggling when it comes to social class. Unfortunately, the disputes about race and where someone thinks you belong in society are very cruel because everyone just wants the best opportunities for survival. America is the land of the free, and no one should be denied the freedom to live a better life. With multicultural marriages giving way to mixed children, the families are being caught in the cross fire. Algranati may have been faced with different issues but in the end she embraced who she is. She may have not been an â€Å"All American Girl† but she has a place within society as a Puerto Rican Egyptian Jew. Life is a journey, no one wants to be singled out or treated cruelly because of the color of their skin or their ethnicity, but it happens practically every day. As far as this world has come, people still deal with race and social acceptance. Until society realizes, that the value of life is honesty and respect for one another, there will always be friction. When will this society be all about love and compassion for one another? As  human beings, all are created equally, so really no race is higher than the other. Society needs to learn how to support one another and learn to get along with each other. Most people want to be loved; if people learn to appreciate others not based on their outer appearance then society will be a much better place. Algranati, Melissa. â€Å"Being an Other† from Becoming American, Becoming Ethnic: College Students Explore Their Roots, Ed Sonia Maasik and Jack Solomon. Boston: Bedford, 2012. 667- 671. Print.

Human Growth and Development Essay

Human development is marked by different stages and milestones over the lifespan. It is expressed over three domains: physical, cognitive and socio/emotional. While human physical and cognitive development is universal, socio/emotional definitions and development vary from culture to culture. Gaining a basic knowledge of human lifespan development will lead to a better understanding of the appearance, perceptions and behaviors of the self and others. Adolescence is a demanding and critical period in life. Failure to meet certain developmental milestones can have serious short- and long-term implications for the individual and society at large. Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological human development generally occurring during the period from puberty to legal adulthood (age of majority). The period of adolescence is most closely associated with the teenage years, although its physical, psychological and cultural expressions can begin earlier and end later. For example, although puberty has been historically associated with the onset of adolescent development, it now typically begins prior to the teenage years and there have been a normative shift of it occurring in preadolescence, particularly in females. Physical growth, as distinct from puberty (particularly in males), and cognitive development generally seen in adolescence, can also extend into the early twenties. Thus chronological age provides only a rough marker of adolescence, and scholars have found it difficult to agree upon a precise definition of adolescence. A thorough understanding of adolescence in society depends on information from various perspectives, most importantly from the areas of psychology, biology, history, sociology, education, and anthropology. Within all of these perspectives, adolescence is viewed as a transitional period between childhood and adulthood whose cultural purpose is the preparation of children for adult roles. Stages of Human Development The various stages of human development include the prenatal period, infancy, toddlerhood, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, middle adulthood and late adulthood. Each stage is marked by milestones in physical, cognitive, and socio/emotional development. 1. Physical Development Physical development has to do with the way that the human body develops over a lifespan. The most rapid and complex human development occurs during the prenatal period. From infancy to early childhood, the physical milestones include developing motor skills like learning to control body movements, walk, talk, speak, use tools like spoons and forks and use the rest room. From infancy to early childhood, humans grow in height, weight and mass and get their first set of teeth. Middle childhood has only a few physical milestones, such as continued growth at a much slower rate and the gain of permanent teeth. Adolescence is the second most rapid and complex time of human development and is when the sexual maturation process begins. Females begin to grow breasts, their hips expand and they grow pubic hair and begin menstruation, which marks their physical ability to procreate. They may grow a few inches more in height. Males have significant growth spurts and develop facial and pubic hair, their voices deepen and they begin to have sperm-producing ejaculations, signifying their ability to procreate. Young adulthood is when humans are at the prime of their physical development. All of the systems are functioning optimally, making this the best time for reproduction. Middle adulthood brings the beginning of physical deterioration, such as the end of fertility in women, or menopause. The decrease in physical abilities and health for both sexes continues through late adulthood . 2. Cognitive Development Cognitive development has to do with the way humans perceive and experience the world and deals with issues like memory, thinking and decision-making processes and concept comprehension. During the prenatal period, cognitive development is highly enveloped in physical development as the primary tool for cognition; the brain is still being developed. During infancy and early childhood, milestones like speaking, comprehension and object differentiation occur. Thoughts about the world are simplistic, and judgments are made in an either/or framework. Middle childhood brings the beginning of concrete and logical thinking, and adolescence brings about a phase where cognitive judgments are often overridden by feelings and impulses because of the body’s rapidly changing physical and biological climate. Young adulthood is the human cognitive prime, as the capacity for rapid and accurate memory, thought processing and information analysis function at peak levels. Perceptions of the world, judgment and morality become more sophisticated and complex. During middle adulthood, humans are experts at problem solving, although they begin to experience some signs of decline with speed in processing and recall. Late adulthood signifies the continued deterioration of cognitive abilities. Theoretical perspectives There are two perspectives on adolescent thinking. One is the constructivist view of cognitive development. Based on the work of Piaget, it takes a quantitative, state-theory approach, hypothesizing that adolescents’ cognitive improvement is relatively sudden and drastic. The second is the information-processing perspective, which derives from the study of artificial intelligence and attempts to explain cognitive development in terms of the growth of specific components of the thinking process. Improvements in cognitive ability By the time individuals have reached age 15 or so, their basic thinking abilities are comparable to those of adults. These improvements occur in five areas during adolescence: 1. Attention. Improvements are seen in selective attention, the process by which one focuses on one stimulus while tuning out another. Divided attention, the ability to pay attention to two or more stimuli at the same time, also improves. 2. Memory. Improvements are seen in both working memory and long-term memory. 3. Processing speed. Adolescents think more quickly than children. Processing speed improves sharply between age five and middle adolescence; it then begins to level off at age 15 and does not appear to change between late adolescence and adulthood. 4. Organization. Adolescents are more aware of their own thought processes and can use mnemonic devices and other strategies to think more efficiently. 5. Meta-cognition – It often involves monitoring one’s own cognitive activity during the thinking process. Adolescents’ improvements in knowledge of their own thinking patterns lead to better self-control and more effective studying. 3. Socio/Emotional Development Socio/emotional development has to do with how an individual is able to handle emotions, relationships, social situations, and the various roles demanded of them by society. Some aspect of Socio/Emotional standards, such as social expectations, relationships, and roles vary from culture to culture. During infancy and early childhood, the primary relationships are with the parents and based on attachment. Environmental exploration, impulsivity, differentiation of self (from others) and the basics of social interaction are learnt. In early childhood, impulsivity begins to give way to control, and awareness of consequences significantly affects behavioral choices. Middle childhood begins the transition from family orientation to peer orientation, which carries on into adolescence. Issues of identify, sexuality and sexual expression, conflict and resolution and internal stability prevail. By young adulthood, the focus shifts from peers to career, social role, building external stability, finding a mate and starting a family. Middle adulthood is met with the psychological and emotional challenges of facing the mid-life crisis, and a life analysis and inventory is taken. Late adulthood marks the transition from the mid-life crisis. Life reflection, acceptance of death, and legacy building or making social contributions also occur at this phase. I. Identity development Among the most common beliefs about adolescence is that it is the time when teenagers form their personal identities. Egocentrism is being performed by adolescents who then form self-consciousness of wanting to feel important in their peer groups and having social acceptance of fitting into the group. Empirical studies suggest that this process might be more accurately described as identity development, rather than formation, but confirms a normative process of change in both content and structure of one’s thoughts about the self. Researchers have used three general approaches to understanding identity development: self-concept, sense of identity, and self-esteem. The years of adolescence create a more conscientious group of young adults. Adolescents pay close attention and give more time and effort to their appearance as their body goes through changes. Unlike children, teens put forth an effort to look presentable (1991). The environment in which an adolescent grows up also plays an important role in their identity development. II. Self Concept Early in adolescence, cognitive developments result in greater self-awareness, greater awareness of others and their thoughts and judgments, the ability to think about abstract, future possibilities, and the ability to consider multiple possibilities at once. As a result, adolescents experience a significant shift from the simple, concrete, and global self-descriptions typical of young children; as children, they defined themselves with physical traits whereas as adolescents, they define themselves based on their values, thoughts and opinions. III. Sense of identity Unlike the conflicting aspects of self-concept, identity represents a coherent sense of self stable across circumstances and including past experiences and future goals. Everyone has a self-concept, whereas Erik Erikson argued that not everyone fully achieves identity. Erikson’s theory of stages of development includes the identity crisis in which adolescents must explore different possibilities and integrate different parts of themselves before committing to their beliefs. He described the resolution of this process as a stage of â€Å"identity achievement† but also stressed that the identity challenge â€Å"is never fully resolved once and for all at one point in time†. Adolescents begin by defining themselves based on their crowd membership. â€Å"Clothes help teens explore new identities, separate from parents, and bond with peers.† Fashion has played a major role when it comes to teenagers â€Å"finding their selves†; Fashion is always evolving , which corresponds with the evolution of change in the personality of teenagers. IV. Environment and identity An adolescent’s environment plays a huge role in their identity development. While most adolescent studies are conducted on white, middle class children, studies have shown that the more privileged upbringing one has the more successful they will be in the development of their identity. The forming of an adolescent’s identity is a crucial time in their life. It has been recently found that demographic patterns suggest that the transition to adulthood is now occurring over a longer span of years than was the case during the middle of the 20th century. Accordingly, youth, a period that spans late adolescence and early adulthood, has become a more prominent stage of the life course. This therefore has caused various factors to become important during this development. So many factors contribute to the developing social identity of an adolescent from commitment, to coping devices, to social media. All of these factors are affected by the environment an adolescent grows up i n. A child from a more privileged upbringing will be exposed to more opportunities as well as better situations in general. An adolescent from an inner city or a crime driven neighborhood is more likely to be exposed to an environment that can be detrimental to their development. Adolescence is a very sensitive period in the development process of one’s life and exposure to the wrong things at that time can have a major affect on decisions someone will make. While children that grow up in nice suburban communities are not exposed to bad environments they are more likely to participate in activities that can benefit their identity and contribute to a more successful identity development. V. Sexual orientation and identity Sexual orientation has been defined as â€Å"an erotic inclination toward people of one or more genders, most often described as sexual or erotic attractions†. In recent years, psychologists have sought to understand how sexual orientation develops during adolescence. Some theorists believe that there are many different possible developmental paths one could take, and that the specific path an individual follows may be determined by their sex, orientation, and when they reached the onset of puberty. VI. Self-esteem The final major aspect of identity formation is self-esteem, one’s thoughts and feelings about one’s self-concept and identity. Contrary to popular belief, there is no empirical evidence for a significant drop in self-esteem over the course of adolescence. â€Å"Barometric self-esteem† fluctuates rapidly and can cause severe distress and anxiety, but baseline self-esteem remains highly stable across adolescence. Girls are most likely to enjoy high self-esteem when engaged in supportive relationships with friends; the most important function of friendship to them is having someone who can provide social and moral support. When they fail to win friends’ approval or couldn’t find someone with whom to share common activities and common interests, in these cases, girls will suffer from low self-esteem. In contrast, boys are more concerned with establishing and asserting their independence and defining their relation to authority. As such, they are more likely to derive high self-esteem from their ability to successfully influence their friends; on the other hand, the lack of romantic competence, for example, failure to win or maintain the affection of the opposite or same-sex (depending on sexual orientation), is the major contributor to low self-esteem in adolescent boys. ECONOMIC CRISES CAN HAVE SERIOUS IMPLICATIONS FOR HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Financial crises, at both the global and the national level, are ubiquitous. This raises concern about the human impacts of crises, especially among more vulnerable populations in developing countries. This is particularly true during childhood and youth, when the brain is developing rapidly, and when socio-emotional and behavioral developments are at their peak. Given the cumulative nature of human development, shortfalls or setbacks at any stage of the life course—from the antenatal environment through adolescence—are often difficult to reverse later in life and may have severe consequences for individual development as well as for the growth and development of successful communities. Thus, it is essential to protect and promote human development in the face of adversity. Three interrelated concepts provide the foundation for understanding the potential impacts of shocks on children and youth. a) Timing: Human development is characterized by critical periods of life during which certain investments must be made to facilitate the achievement of specific milestones in development, or stage salient developmental tasks. These age-related expectations for the mastery of particular tasks provide benchmarks for the abilities that an individual should ideally master by different ages, and that are correlated with successful development and transition to subsequent stages in life. Economic crises can disrupt a young person’s â€Å"normal† development by preventing or delaying the mastery of these developmental tasks at specific stages, which—if uncorrected—can have potential long term consequences. b) Context: Development in childhood and youth is influenced by diverse contexts or settings (family, peers, schools, communities, socio-cultural belief systems, policy regimes, and the economy). The relative importance of these settings changes during the life course. Interactions among these settings determine both the transmission of shocks such as a financial crisis to the young person’s immediate environment and the impact of the shock on her development. As development is partly a function of a person’s repeated interactions with her immediate environment (the proximal processes of human development), shocks can disrupt the contexts in which these processes occur, and hinder a young person’s ability to develop successfully. c) Transmission mechanisms: There are numerous pathways through which a crisis can affect the well-being and development of a young person. Crises may be experienced directly at the individual level (through e.g. a change in aspirations and identity), or indirectly through the family, school, or other settings (through e.g. increased parental stress, parental job loss, a reduction in publicly-provided services). The developing person will experience crises through the loss in income, but also through other channels, such as psychological distress. The relevance of each particular transmission mechanism varies depending on the life stage of the person as well as on the context. Different settings may provide protective factors that prevent, mitigate or attenuate negative impacts; these factors can be a source of resilience, facilitating positive adaptive behavior on the part of the developing person. Effects of economic crises on adolescents Adolescence is a crucial stage in a person’s development. Adolescence is marked by profound physical, emotional, and social transitions; the brain undergoes significant neurological development, and cognitive and socio-emotional abilities take shape. While social expectations of the precise timing of certain transitions vary across countries and cultures, all adolescents are eventually expected to make the transition to adulthood, including entering work, becoming financially independent, and starting a family. Adapting to these new roles and successfully managing this transition requires the mastery of three interrelated stage-salient tasks: 3 a. Autonomy and relatedness: As young people mature, they renegotiate their relationships with parents, peers, teachers, and other adults. Settings outside the family, such as the workplace, become increasingly important. Young people must achieve greater personal and financial independence while maintaining positive relationships with parents and other adults. b. Identity: The process of growing more autonomous and defining one’s role in society requires that adolescents establish personal and vocational preferences and aspirations. c. Goal setting and achievement: The ability to define goals and plan and act strategically provides the foundation for subsequent growth and development. ECONOMIC CRISES CAN IMPAIR HEALTHY ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT Crises affect the opportunities and support structures available to adolescents to develop the cognitive, socio-emotional, and behavioral competencies needed to master the stage-salient tasks. In particular, crises can lead to: i) Limited and unpredictable employment opportunities: Youth employment tends to be more vulnerable to economic crises than adult employment. Young people are often engaged in temporary and unprotected work—such as seasonal, temporary, and part-time jobs—or in sectors particularly vulnerable to economic fluctuations, such as construction. By constraining employment opportunities, as well as the availability of other entry points into the labor market, such as internships and apprenticeships, economic shocks affect the process of acquiring necessary skills, work experience, and achieving financial autonomy. Worsening labor market conditions can also affect adolescents’ expectations, vocational identity, and personal goals, as the context and perceived likelihood of achieving them may change dramatically. ii) Loss of parental employment and income, and deterioration of family dynamics: The threat or realization of losing income or assets can lead to anxiety among parents, which is then transmitted to adolescents throug h parents’ emotions and behaviors. For example, the quality of parenting can be negatively affected, impairing the development of adolescents’ autonomy and ability to form relationships. Impaired family dynamics are linked to mental health problems and heightened incidence of risky behaviors. Research also shows that adolescents who perceive economic stress within their families have lower self-expectations for the future. iii) Changes in the availability of adult role models outside the family: Crises may not only affect intra family dynamics, but also the availability of and interactions with positive role models in the school or community. Lower public expenditure can adversely affect the quality as well as quantity of schooling, while supervised extracurricular activities and out-of-school programs are often discontinued. These reduce the availability of positive adult mentoring relationships, restricting the support and guidance available to adolescents in mastering their developmental tasks. In addition to these disruptions in their immediate environment, adolescents are more aware than younger children of the impact of shocks on socioeconomic status, and they may perceive economic pressures and stigma more directly. This can lead to additional difficulties with psychosocial adjustment, and influence their self-esteem, identity, future orientation, and efficacy beliefs. THE FAILURE TO MASTER CRITICAL TASKS CAN HAVE NEGATIVE IMPLICATIONS FOR ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT. Failure to achieve stage-salient developmental tasks can jeopardize other life outcomes. Although there is considerable heterogeneity across individuals, crises can have particularly negative consequences in the following areas: a) Schooling & Employment: Contrary to the experience of idiosyncratic shocks, such as parental job loss, there is no compelling evidence that young people leave school during aggregate crises to work and support the household. Young people have fewer job opportunities in a crisis; this decreases the perceived returns to entering the labor market relative to remaining in school. On the other hand, diminished opportunities for employment can severely affect those young people who do try to enter the labor market. Early un- and underemployment is known to have serious long-term effects on future employment and lifetime income, and these young people often fail to catch up when the economy rebounds. b) Mental health: By altering their relationships, identity, and goals for the future, unexpected life events can affect adolescents’ physical and mental health. Difficulty in the labor market may lead to hopelessness and lower self-esteem, especially for young people who are in the process of forming occupational identities. In fact, unemployment experienced at early ages is associated with stress, depression, and illness later in life. Mental health problems during youth can also lead to lower educational achievement, increased substance abuse, violence, and risky sexual behavior. c) Risky behavior: Economic adversity and its effects on the adolescent and her immediate environment may lead to greater risk taking, although this response is by no means universal. Crises can diminish the quality of parenting, which in turn may increase the likelihood for delinquency among youth. Similarly, stress and mental health problems have been associated with risky sexual activity. But while young people who experience severe stress are more prone to substance abuse, an income shock that decreases disposable income can decrease the consumption of alcohol, tobacco, and drugs. Significance Having some knowledge about human lifespan development is beneficial for many reasons. It increases self-awareness and understanding, which helps with life planning. If a female is aware of the stages of her physical development, for example, she will know that her natural childbearing years are limited. If she wants to have children, she can use family planning to make choices about her education, career and mate to support this goal. Additionally, this knowledge can be helpful for improving relationships and interpersonal communication and resolving conflicts. Conclusion Human development is marked by different stages and milestones over the lifespan. It is expressed over three domains: physical, cognitive and socio/emotional. While human physical and cognitive development is universal, socio/emotional definitions and development vary from culture to culture. Gaining a basic knowledge of human lifespan development will lead to a better understanding of the appearance, perceptions and behaviors of the self and others. Physical development has to do with the way that the human body develops over a lifespan. The most rapid and complex human development occurs during the prenatal period. From infancy to early childhood, the physical milestones include developing motor skills like learning to control body movements, walk, talk, speak, use tools like spoons and forks and use the rest room. From infancy to early childhood, humans grow in height, weight and mass and get their first set of teeth. Cognitive development has to do with the way humans perceive and experience the world and deals with issues like memory, thinking and decision-making processes and concept comprehension. During the prenatal period, cognitive development is highly enveloped in physical development as the primary tool for cognition; the brain is still being developed. Socio/emotional development has to do with how an individual is able to handle emotions, relationships, social situations, and the various roles demanded of them by society. Some aspect of Socio/Emotional standards, such as social expectations, relationships, and roles vary from culture to culture. REFERENCE 1. Human Development, Diane E. Papalia, 9th edition 2. Boyd, D., and Bee, H., (2006). Lifespan Development, Fourth Edition. Boston, MA. Pearson Education, Inc. 3. Chassin, L., A. Hussong, and A. 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