Relationship Between Corporate Governance And Risk...

ABSTRACT This paper identifies and talks about the relationship between corporate governance and risk management of high technology firms, with publicly listed Australian biotechnology organizations as for example. It displays a governance structure that better deals with the various complex risks such organizations face. INTRODUCTION The current global financial crisis has seen the breakdown of various organizations universally, showing that no industry or ward is invulnerable from insufficient or wrong risk management. In the light of the current global financial crisis, we examine the requirement for suitable risk management, planning, and control and the requirement for organizations to reassess their governance structure to†¦show more content†¦Risk Management Frameworks, for example, ERM (Enterprise Risk Management) and Business Continuity Planning, also called Disaster Recovery Planning or contingency planning, are center components of gathering risk management methods. ERM is the systems and procedures used by associations to oversee hazards and seize opportunities identified with the accomplish their goals. ERM supports the board and the organization to guarantee that administration earnestly work through a procedure of distinguishing and investigating risks, with a specific end goal to settle o n educated choices. Importantly a successful Risk Management scheme will help in guaranteeing less surprises, improving management and abuse of chances, enhancing and execution, upgrading data preparing and correspondence, enhancing responsibility, assurance and governance, improving reputation, and expanding insurance of directors. ERM ought to upgrade disclosure to organisation chiefs and officers, which in turn aids in better management of the business and enhanced transparency of management (Joint Technical Committee OB-007, Risk Management, 2005). ERM obliges an organized methodology to risk assessment, and collection of risk into a more elevated amount risk profile report, and additionally a prioritization of risks (Espersen 2002). Bowling and Rieger (2005) examine how actualizing a full ERM Framework can take a few years. Numerous organisations start byShow MoreRelatedUse Of Internal Audit By Australian Companies1117 Words   |  5 Pagesfunction and it is strongly related with risk management, indication of effective internal controls and efficient corporate governance. This study is based on the work done by Jenny Goodwin-Stewart and Pamela Kent(2006). They examined and study the data from the annual reports of public listed companies. This paper also provides detailed information on the need of Internal Audit and examines the relationship between the size of the firm and strong corporate governance through evolution of different hypothesisRead MoreAdelphia Case 1 Essay1058 Words   |  5 PagesAdelphia Case Summary The Allegations: Prosecutors say members of the cable companys founding family and two former executives looted the firm on a massive scale, spending company funds on personal expenses, such as a $12.8 million golf course. The firm has been accused of hiding business relationships between Adelphia and entities tied to the founders and for inflating its financial results. Whos Who: †¢ John J. Rigas, Adelphias founder †¢ Timothy Rigas, former CFO †¢ Michael Rigas,Read MoreSocial Responsibility : Kroger Company983 Words   |  4 PagesSocial responsibility is an ethical framework which suggests that an organization or individual has an obligation to act for the benefit of society at large. Social responsibility is a duty every organization has to perform so as to maintain a balance between the economy and the environment Kroger Company Just in this year alone Kroger has made a substantial impact in society. When it comes to the social aspect the company went above and beyond the norm. Since 2010, Kroger has been contributing $1.2 billionRead MoreComparative Corporate Governance and Financial Goals3999 Words   |  16 PagesChapter 1 Comparative Corporate Governance and Financial Goals ï  ®Ã¢â‚¬Æ'End-of-Chapter Questions 1. Corporate goals: shareholder wealth maximization. Explain the assumptions and objectives of the shareholder wealth maximization pmodel. Answer: The Anglo-American markets have a philosophy that a firm’s objective should follow the shareholder wealth maximization (SWM) model. More specifically, the firm should strive to maximize the return to shareholders, as measured by the sum of capital gains and dividendsRead MoreThe Relationship Between Ownership Structure and Firm Performance: an Empirical Analysis of Listed Companies in Kenya5536 Words   |  23 PagesAND BOARD EFFECTIVENESS ON FIRM PERFORMANCE: NEW EVIDENCE FROM KENYA Vincent O. Ongore, PhD Assistant Commissioner Kenya Revenue Authority P.O. Box 48240-00100, GPO Phone: + 254 (20) 310900 Mobile: +254 723854796 Nairobi. Email: Vincent.ongore@kra.go.ke Abstract Research on corporate governance is very thin on the role of owners on corporate performance, especially how risk-taking orientation of owners comes to bear on decision making processes of the firm. The Board has been given inordinateRead MoreThe Role Of Corporate Governance And Agency Theories1265 Words   |  6 PagesCorporate governance deals with the conflicts of interests between the providers of finance and the managers; the shareholders and the stakeholders; different types of shareholders (mainly the large shareholder and the minority shareholders); and the prevention or mitigation of these conflicts of interests (Marc Goergen, 2012). Can these stakeholder interests be aligned though? And if so how? I will discuss various aspects of corporate governance and agency theories as well as examples of failedRead MoreThe Transformation Of The Legal Function1318 Words   |  6 Pagesby more than one hundred specialists in certain cases, they could be considered as large as some of the legal firms by number of lawyers and developed functions. From its organization, composition and structure as a Department, its professionals, their training on remuneration, its impact on government bodies and influence on corporate governance, as well as the management of legal risks, this study will analyze the seven challenges of internal legal advisors. This paper also analyses the presentRead MoreAgency Theory and Corporate Governance3335 Words   |  13 Pagesï » ¿Agency Theory And Corporate Governance Introduction The global market has shown exemplary contribution to the growth of the worlds development until recently where financial crisis have been bombarding most economies. As a result, the cost of livelihood had been unaffordable to many who live below the dollar. The monetary crisis has led to the lowering of many currencies against the dollar, hence advancing the economy crisis to most worldwide nations. This turn of events has been attributed toRead MoreEffects Of Internal Audit Practices On Financial Performance Of Commercial Banks1689 Words   |  7 Pages1 Introduction 7 2.2 Theoretical review. 7 2.2.1 Agency Theory 7 2.2.2 Contingency theory 8 2.2.3 Lending and credibility theory. 8 2.3 Empirical review. 9 2.4 Conceptual framework 10 2.5.1 Control processes 11 2.5.2 Organizational governance. 12 2.5.3 Risk management 13 2.5.4 Financial performance. 13 2.6 Critique of the Existing Literature 14 2.7 Summary 15 2.8 Research gaps 15 CHAPTER 3 16 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 16 3.1 Introduction. 16 3.2 Research Design 16 3.3 Target population. 16 3.4 SampleRead MoreCritique Paper on Completing the Audit and Post-Audit Reponsibilities2301 Words   |  10 PagesBennouri, entitled â€Å"Does Auditors’ Reputation ‘Discourage’ Related Party Transactions? The French Case† studies the relationship between the frequency of RPTs and the external auditors’ reputation. Regulators, standard setters and market participants consider related party transactions a major problem in financial markets. The quality of external auditing may be proposed as an important governance mechanism to alleviate the propensity of insiders to use related party transactions. The study tests the prevalence

RFID Technology for Child Monitoring-Free-Samples for Students

Question: Write a short research proposal on an IT Prototype System. Answer: Introduction Information technology id the revolutionary technology that is enabling the individuals to be connected with the world and better decision-making based on the wide range of collected data. It is a great concern of the time that children might be lost or kidnapped while going on vacations or any large park in a museum or city. This report emphasizes on a solution proposed for this problem in the form of an information technology that can be helpful in overcoming the presented scenario. RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) for Child Monitoring RFID is a technology that is not a common phenomenon but it is also not a very new implementation as in Californias preschool had implemented RFID in the clothing of students in 2010. Another example is the in 2004; School district of the Houston, Texas had implemented the RFID chips in manner to monitor 13 campuses. It is becoming popular in various sectors and could be efficiently implemented within the children objects in manner to monitor the location of them through GPS. There are many advantages of implementing RFID chips within the objects of children that includes monitoring them whether they are at right and expected position or not and be notified the path they are going (Hutabarat and Susanto 2017). A limit can be set considering the area and push notifications can be enabled if the child moves out of that region. This technology will enable the parent or guardian to monitor them through GPS implemented within the mobile devices or PCs (Gao et al. 2017). Kidnapping cases w ill be minimised if the exact location of the child is already available and police or federals could easily bring children out of danger (RHemalatha et al. 2017). Despite of these advantages, there are certain issues related to the implementation of this technology within the children that includes firstly, health issues as certain rays and waves will be always coming out from the chip that might affect the health of children. Secondly, not enough experience is needed to manipulate such information technology, as a common programmer can easily manipulate the coding and present vulnerability to the location that will affect the monitoring in all ways. RFID will be implemented obviously, without authorization of the child and thus will raise certain ethical and privacy issues. Despite of these, availability of exact location of child 24*7 will be helpful for their protection in all ways (Hanafi et al. 2017). Many researchers have successfully developed this technology in manner to so lve the existing problem and helps in monitoring them without any extra effort. Conclusion Based on the above report it can be concluded that RFID can be possible solution for the problem and could be an efficient and effective technology for tracking and monitoring the children. There are many advantages including decrement in the growth of crime rate, monitoring children through their exact location, and monitor them where they are going through GPS. However, there is certain privacy, security, and ethical issues related to such implementation as monitoring anyone without having authorization could lead to ethical and privacy issues. References Gao, Z., Guo, H., Xie, Y., Luo, Y., Lu, H. and Yan, K., 2017. ChildGuard: A Child-Safety Monitoring System.IEEE MultiMedia,24(4), pp.48-57. Hanafi, A., Pathan, S., Malik, S. and Nagani, R.A.A., 2017. RFID-based System for School Children Transportation Safety Enhancement with Attendance System. Hutabarat, D.P. and Susanto, R., 2017, February. Designing a Monitoring System to Locate a Child in a Certain Closed Area Using RFID Sensor and Android Smartphone. InProceedings of the 5th International Conference on Communications and Broadband Networking(pp. 54-58). ACM. RHemalatha, M., Divakar, S., Logesh, D. and Kumar, M., 2017. RFID BASED SCHOOL CHILDREN SECURITY SYSTEM.

Violence in Sports Essay Example For Students

Violence in Sports Essay Violence in Sports Brian Thompson American Military University SPMT601 Pamela J. Wojnar Abstract Sports and violence are complimentary to one another. In some sports, violence is merely a byproduct of the competition. In other sports violence is expected. Certain sports require a predisposition toward violence to be successful while others encourage an over-conformity to the norm with regard to violence. The more violent the athlete plays, the better for him and his team. Violent behavior is not limited to the players on field. Fans and spectators can fill a role when it comes to violent behavior. Although it is not expected as it is among the players, fans will engage in violence as a way of expressing, or reacting, to their emotional involvement with the sport. 1. On-the-field violence is related to a number of things including over-conformity to the norms of the sport ethic, commercialization, and masculinity. Which of these factors accounts most for the level of brutal body contact that occurs in professional football in the United States? Explain your choice. We will write a custom essay on Violence in Sports specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Choice: Over-conformity to the norms of the sport ethic is the best choice. Explanation: The reason is that there are certain expectations of competition especially in contact sports such as pro football. To survive and excel in such a physical game as pro football the athletes must maintain over-conform to a certain extent. They must play the game in such a way that they maximize their earning potential. The average life span for a pro player is around 3 years. For an athlete to secure lifelong financial security they must play with a level of physicality that warrants their need to the team. This is a minimum expectation not taking into account other factors such as athleticism and execution of techniques. 2. After reading a report of a male athlete who has assaulted a woman, one of your friends says, â€Å"Playing sports causes men to be violent. † She knows you are taking a course on the sociology of sport, and she wants you to respond to her conclusion. What do you say? Marv Levy, former head coach in the NFL, once said, â€Å"Football doesn’t build character, it reveals character. Much like what is discussed in the textbook of the correlation between success on and off the field is sometimes more related to the fact that the athletes were driven individuals before they played sports, violence is also something that falls into this category. Its is within human nature to inflict pain on others, especially when we compete for the same resources. The boundaries of society suppress the action of this drive to hurt. That is a good thing of course. The state ment â€Å"playing sports causes men to be violent† is not accurate. I believe that men with a more natural tendency toward violence play sports. Sports, especially contact sports, are an outlet for aggressive individuals. Aggressiveness and physicality are both traits that coaches and organizations look for in athletes that play contact sports. So with that being said the tendency toward being violent is apparent before the person ever plays. 3. You are the new principal of a school that is hosting a game between your #1 ranked football team and the #2 ranked team in your division. There is a deep, longstanding rivalry between the schools and a history of player and spectator violence during games. After reading Ch. , what measures would you take to control player and spectator violence on and off the field? There would definitely be a meeting among the coaches involved with our team to clearly explain expectations of the players and staff. Secondly I would personally meet with the athletes to spell out exactly what expect from them in terms of conduct. Letters and phone calls would be made to the parents of the student body letting them know that any conduct that is deemed out of order would be handled by the police officers on duty at the game and the school would bring charges against them. .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 , .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 .postImageUrl , .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 , .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80:hover , .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80:visited , .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80:active { border:0!important; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80:active , .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80 .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u6928f1f5aa1a80b0c73f5bf3bd357b80:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Taming of the Shrew1 EssayI would also have hand outs ready for fans as they enter the stadium outlining our procedure for those that violate orderly conduct policies. As a principal, I would attempt to meet with the principal of the other school and ask him to make comparable steps to help ensure the safety of everyone involved. Lastly I would do all I could to make the presence of security personnel such as faculty, staff, and police officers, visible for all to see. Hopefully we could avert any trouble before it happens.

Quantitative and Qualitative Research Characteristics and Comparison

Quantitative and Qualitative Research Characteristics and Comparison Quantitative research is the systematic experimental study of social phenomena using scientific, statistical or mathematical and computational procedures.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Quantitative and Qualitative Research: Characteristics and Comparison specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Measurement forms the backbone of quantitative research since it offers a link between empirical examination and mathematical expression of relationships. The main objective in this design is developing and using mathematical models, hypotheses and theories in relation to phenomena. Qualitative research is the process of gathering data based on the importance of observations through a systematic, thorough inquiry into a problem, situation or a society with the aim of generating new facts or authenticating the existing knowledge. In this research the phenomena under study are hard to measure mathematically such as attitudes, beliefs , meanings, attributes and culture. Therefore, it is the analysis, assessment and interpretation of observations in determining the fundamental significance and nature of phenomena, relationships and units without using mathematical models. Characteristics of quantitative research Methods and measurements Quantitative research uses several methods such as surveys and questionnaires, experiments in case controlled studies as well as tracking and cohort studies. Surveys and questionnaires enable the researchers to place numerical values on opinions or attributes. Experiments in case controlled studies enable one to control environmental factors under study. Cohort studies involve placing people of the same characteristics in a cohort and then measuring the changes in comparison to the control, group. Basically this design is based on numbers and figures that are less in-depth but broad in information on a number of cases. The responses for the data have fixed options for instance in questionnaires. Use of statistics Quantitative research applies statistical tests and methods such as data collection, data recording, and formulation of hypothesis which is based on theories. Causal relationships are also established using mathematical tools. Correlation analysis for instance is mostly applied in measuring causality.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Objective Quantitative research offers experimental effects that are interpreted by the researchers of a situation, problem or project. This is mainly because it is based on facts obtained from surveys or interviews or questionnaires from the respondents. Additionally, in this design the research is independent of what is being researched. The findings of the research can be valid and accurate depending on the instrument or measurement device being used. Deductive Quantitative research involves a confirmato ry or â€Å"top down† scientific technique which is used primarily for explanation, description, and prediction. A deductive procedure is used to test pre-stated models, constructs, and hypotheses that forms the structure of a theory Characteristics of qualitative research Design strategies Qualitative research uses naturalistic inquiry, emergent design flexibility and purposeful sampling. Naturalistic inquiry involves having no predetermined limitations on findings and studying the real situations as they occur without controlling them. Emergent design flexibility involves being open to adjusting inquiry as situations change or get deeper. Purposeful sampling involves selecting population that is rich in information like cultures, communities, events, organizations and so on to get the insight of the phenomenon. Data collection and fieldwork strategies Qualitative research focuses on personal experience and engagement, qualitative data, mindfulness and emphatic neutrality, dynamic systems and an inside view with an objective mind. These are necessary to ensure in-depth information which is objective and valid is obtained even in sensitive circumstances. Methods: Qualitative research uses methods like focus group discussions, in-depth interviews, ethnography, observation and review of documents on the theme. The information is text based and has greater detailed information based on few cases. The responses do not have fixed options since they can be structured or semi-structured. Subjective Facts in this design are based on the description of a problem or situation according to those experiencing it. Therefore the validity, precision and reliability of the data rely on the skill or expertise of the researcher and the willingness and reliability of the source.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Quantitative and Qualitative Research: Characteristics and Comparison specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Comparison Qualitative and quantitative research differ in a number of ways including; methods of data collection and fieldwork strategies, nature of data collected, design strategies as well as situations in which they can be used. Qualitative research is used in complex situations that require deep and qualitative data. It is also applicable in abstract situations like studying culture and behavior in which case cannot be quantified. However, these two designs more often than not serve to complement one another. Qualitative research can be seen as the precursor of quantitative research because it produces probable guides and innovations to formulate a practical and testable hypothesis. The hypothesis can then be expansively tested and scientifically examined, through standard quantitative research techniques.

Health&Fitness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Health&Fitness - Essay Example The author is of the opinion that regular moderate exercises can achieve the desired benefits. To support his views, he lists down several benefits that accrue like dramatically lower rates of heart disease, strokes and many others. Simple activities like light walking, mowing the lawn, even if done in bits and pieces, by taking time off in between, go a long way in improving health. Climbing the stairs to one's office rather than taking an elevator or doing a brisk walk from the parking lot are ways that can be done easily, with minimal efforts required. One important thing to note from the article is that simple exercises like mentioned above can be made part and parcel of one's life and hence will reap benefits in the long term. As to how I stand on the article, I would say that I agree with the author's views that regular exercise is important, even if it is not intensive. What usually happens is that one is not able to sustain one's fitness regimes due to commitment that is required. Intensive or rigorous exercises take a lot out of the person and demands considerable effort. So people usually are unable to make daily visits to the gym from a tiring day at the work. Even if they do so they do not have enough time to spare.

Persuation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Persuation - Essay Example Failure to be out the game voluntarily and apologize to fellow teammates, I will have no choice but to report Joseph to the coach. Joseph violated a major rule. The captains explicitly relayed the rules to the team members before the season begun and made it clear that it was vital for them to follow the rules. The team further agreed that drinking would lead to a one game suspension. Joseph, as a teammate, agreed to this policy. Therefore, there is no excuse for what Joseph did as he was aware of the consequences and the team’s goal. Joseph is my best friend. Therefore, he should respect my decision. He knows very well how dedicated I am to the team and winning the national championship. Moreover, he knows my work ethics and the importance of following the rules. I did not expect this from him as he is supposed to set a good example for the team. On my part, as the captain, associating with people who break rules and being lenient on them will not be setting a good example. Alcohol has many effects on a person. The dehydration and lack of energy, in particular, will affect Joseph. The team is on the verge of playing the biggest game of the season against the biggest rivals. Therefore, the training is intensive so that the team can succeed in beating the rivals. Dehydration and lack of energy will prevent Joseph from training as hard as he should. Thus, he should really consider the possibility of a poor performance. If I do not punish Joseph, the team might find out about the drinking and get angry, as it will be favoritism. The anger will affect the team’s performance, as there will be no coordination. Moreover, the other members will feel like their drinking and breaking other rules is justified. They will not expect a punishment if they broke any of the rules. If the coach was to find out that Joseph went out drinking and refused to sit out the game, he might actually kick him out of the team. The coach

Geometrical Optics And Its Applications

Geometrical Optics And Its Applications Optics is the cornerstone of photonics systems and applications. Geometrical optics, or ray optics, is to study the geometry of paths of lights and their imagery through optical systems. Light will be treated as a form of energy which travels in straight lines called rays. When light comes to be regarded as waves, it will be seen that shadows cast by objects are not as sharp as rectili (Ariel Lipson,Stephen G. Lipson,Henry Lipson) (Ariel Lipson,Stephen G. Lipson,Henry Lipson, 2010)near propagation suggests due to diffraction and interference effects of wave. Thus, there is a simple assumption for geometrical optics, which is rays of light propagate along straight lines until they get reflected, refracted, or absorbed at a surface. 2 Fermats Principle 2.1 Background Fermats Principle, also known as the principle of the shortest optical path, was introduced by Pierre de Fermat in the early seventeenth century. This principle is used to state and explain the motion of light ray through different media, which helps to demonstrate laws of reflection and refraction later on. 2.2 Theory The path of a light ray connecting two points is the one for which the time of transit, but not the length, is a minimum. The time, T , for a light ray through space to travel from a point A to another point B can be calculated as: It is known that is velocity, which can also be regarded as for light, where c is the speed of light and n is the refractive index of the medium. Thus, we have Then the path taken by light should be the path that minimizes this integral, which would be: Therefore, it is the fact that light will travel along paths of stationary optical path length, where the optical path length is a local maximum or minimum with respect to any small variation in the path. And many paths will take exactly the same time to travel from point A to point B. (Ariel Lipson,Stephen G. Lipson,Henry Lipson, 2010) 3. Reflection 3.1 Derivation for Law of Reflection In general, law of reflection states that when a light ray incident upon a reflective surface, it will be reflected with an reflective angle that exactly equal to the incident angle with respect to the normal of the surface. Law of reflection can be dervied from Fermats Principle. Assume that the medium of the light travel is homogeneous, we haveC:UsersGaryDesktopà ¦Ã…“ ªÃƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬ËœÃ‚ ½Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã‚ .png Total path length S from A to B is Based on Fermats Principle we know that light would travel the path with minimum time. As in homogeneous medium, light travels with a constant speed and therefore the minimum time path is equilvant to the minimum distance path, which can be obtained by taking the first derivative of S with respect to x. which is sinà £Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¥AOC = sin à £Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¥BOC Thus shows that à £Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¥AOC = à £Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¥BOC, the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection NB: It has to be reminded that the incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal are co-planar. (Philip D. Straffin, C. T. Benson, 1993) 3.2 Specular and Diffuse Reflection In details, there are two types of reflection Specular reflection and diffuse reflection. http://titan.bloomfield.edu/facstaff/dnicolai/images/ImagesPhy106/lesson2.gif Specular or regular reflection is said to occur when parallel rays reflect from a high smooth and flat surface. For instance, a flashlight beam is said to have specular reflection as the reflective surface is mirror which is highly smooth and it, hence, makes the reflected beams travel towards the same direction in parallel as in (a). Most object, however, reflect light diffusely and the rays in an incident parallel beam are reflected in many direction as in (b) because of diffuse reflection. Diffuse reflection is due to the surface of the object not being perfectly smooth like a mirror. In fact, under microscopic scale, the surface of most of objects, if not all, is quite rough. Although at each point on the surface the law of reflection is observed, the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection varies from point to point. Each of the initially parallel rays, therefore, is reflected in a different direction. 3.3 Mirror Concepts and its Applications 3.3.1 Image Formation with Mirrors Mirrors, undoubtedly, are ubiquitous in daily, especially used in mirror and optical instruments for gathering light and forming images. Law of reflection can be applied to use in locating the reflected image graphically as long as the size, location and orientation of the object is known. 3.3.1.1 Images in Plane Mirrors Images with mirrors are formed when many non-parallel light beams are reflected from the mirror surface and converge to form a corresponding image point. Image formed by plane mirror is erect, virtual, same size as the object and laterally inverted.C:UsersGaryDesktopreflection in mirror.png For a point object, in Fig 3.3.1.1a, rays from the object at O are reflected in all directions based on the laws of reflection so that they appear to come from a point I behind the mirror and this is where the observer imagines the image to be. For an extended object, in Fig 3.3.1.1b, the image of a point A on the object is at A, and two points are being equidistant from the mirror. Similarly, the image of point B is at B. The image size, therefore, is identical to the object seize, giving a magnification of unity. However, the right-hand side of the object becomes the left-hand side of the image and vice versa. The image is said to be laterally inverted.C:UsersGaryDesktopmirror extended object.png To conclude, a planar mirror is strictly stigmatic in nature Any incident rays issued from point A gives reflected rays passing through point B symmetrically to A with regard to the plane of the mirror. B, hence, is the image of A. (Katz, 2002) 3.3.1.2 Images in Curved Mirrors There are mainly two types of spherical mirrors, concave and convex. Similar to planar mirror, image can be traced using the law of reflection. Unlike image formed by planar mirror, which is always erect, virtual, same size as the object and laterally inverted, the image formed by a spherical mirror and its nature depend on the distance of the object from the mirror. To construct the image, we assume that small objects on the principal axes of mirrors of small aperture are being considered so that all rays are paraxial. Point images will, thus, be formed of points on the object. For concave mirrors, also known as converging mirrors because of their action on a parallel beam of light, is a mirror with a curved reflecting surface that bulges inward. The formation of image using concave mirror can be in different locations of the object can be concluded by the following figure. Concave Mirror The nature of image using concave mirror and its applications are summarized as below: Position of the object Position of the image Nature and size of the image Use At infinity At the focus Real, inverted and diminished As collector of radiation in solar heating devices Beyond the centre of curvature Between the focus and the centre of curvature Real, inverted and diminished At the centre of curvature At centre of curvature Real, inverted and same size as object As a reflecting mirror behind a projector lamp Between the focus and centre of curvature Beyond the centre of curvature Real, inverted and magnified In flood lights At focus At infinity Real, inverted and magnified As a reflecting mirror in car, head lights, search lights etc. Between the pole of the mirror and the focus Appears behind the mirror Virtual, erect and magnified As a shaving mirror or makeup mirror and dentists mirror (Katz, 2002) For convex mirrors, also known as diverging mirrors reflect the incoming parallel light beams to form divergent beams which appear to come from a point behind the mirror.Convex Mirror Unlike that in concave mirrors, the nature of image formed by convex mirror is always virtual, diminished and erect. (Katz, 2002) 3.3.2 Derivation of the mirror formula Mirror formula is useful when we have to calculate the image location. Using triangles 2 and 3, we have,http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/mimg232.gif While using trangles 2 and 4, we have, Where is the image distance, is the object distance, f is the focal length, is the image height and is the object height It should be noticed that the sign convention is to be used in mirror formula. A real object or image distance is positive while a virtual object or image distance is negative. Magnification of a mirror image, m, can also be calculated by 3.3.3 Mirror instruments 3.3.3.1 Catoptric Systems Catoptric Systems is the system that merely consists of mirrors for the formation of image. (Board, 2012) 3.3.3.1.1 Newtonian telescopehttp://bdaugherty.tripod.com/gcseAstronomy/images/newtonian.jpg Newtonian telescope is the first reflecting telescope invented by Isaac Newton in 1668. It consists of a concave primary mirror and a small flat diagonal secondary mirror. In a bid to have a stigmatic axial image, a concave mirror has to be applied to act as a primary mirror and it reflects light back up the scope axis to the secondary mirror which is titled at 45o to the axis. The secondary mirror, which is a small plane mirror, is placed in the path of beams reflected by the primary mirror in order to divert the rays to one side of the tube. The reason for choosing a small mirror to act as secondary mirror is to prevent the influx of light beams is blocked from reaching the primary mirror. Pros of the Newtonian telescope Cons of the Newtonian telescope Less expensive Reduction of light intensity due to the blockage of central flat plane Shorter focal ratio leads a wider field of view Easily suffer from coma (i.e. an off-axis aberration) Free of chromatic aberration Simpler fabrication (Kitchin, 2012) 3.3.3.1.2 Cassegrain Telescope http://www.vikdhillon.staff.shef.ac.uk/teaching/phy217/telescopes/cassegrain.gif Cassegrain Telescope is another type of reflecting telescope employing two principal mirrors, a concave parabolic primary mirror like the Newtonians, but its secondary one is a convex hyperboloidal mirror. It makes use of the special properties of parabolic and hyperbolic reflectors. A concave parabolic reflector will reflect all incoming light rays parallel to its axis of symmetry to a single point, the focus. A convex hyperbolic reflector has two foci and will reflect all light rays directed at one of its two foci towards its other focus. The mirrors in this type of telescope are designed and positioned so that they share one focus and so that the second focus of the hyperbolic mirror will be at the same point at which the image is to be observed, usually just outside the eyepiece. The parabolic mirror reflects parallel light rays entering the telescope to its focus, which is also the focus of the hyperbolic mirror. The hyperbolic mirror then reflects those light rays to its other focus, where the image is observed. (Waland, 1990) 3.3.3.1.3 Gregorian telescope http://s4.hubimg.com/u/7341531_f520.jpg Gregorian telescope employs concave parabolic mirror to act as both primary and secondary mirror in this reflecting telescope. The light that first enters the tube is reflected by the primary concave mirrors and directed towards the secondary mirror, which is also a concave mirror. It will reflect the rays out to the telescope through the hole in its center. Observer can therefore view the image formed on the eyepiece. (Trà ¼mper, 2010) 3.3.3.2 Catadioptric Systems Catadioptric system, on the other hand, is the system that consists of both mirrors and lenses for the formation of image. (Board, 2012) Catadioptric Systems will not be included in this paper. 3.4 Other Applications 3.4.1 Optical lever and light-beam galvanometers Galvanometer is an instrument that used to measure very small electric currents. Some sensitive galvanometers would use a beam of light in conjunction with a small mirror as a pointer. When there exists current flowing in the electric wire, a tiny mirror that is fixed to the part of the meter will rotate. And a light beam from a fixed lamp falls on the mirror and is reflected onto a translucent scale. For a given current, the longer the pointer (i.e. the reflected beam) the greater the deflection observed on the scale. This simply applies the reflective nature of light wave. (A.M.Badadhe, 2006)http://www.daviddarling.info/images/moving-coil_galvanometer.jpg 3.4.2 Red-eye effect The Red-eye effect is a common phenomenon in photography. It occurs when the photographic flash unit place closely to the camera lens. Normally, the rationale of photo-taking is that light from the flash unit enters the eye and is reflected back to the camera lens. Nevertheless, under dark environment, pupil diameter would increase due to contraction of radial muscle fibers and relaxation of circular muscle fibers of iris under autonomic nervous system and therefore more light beams can enter into the retina of the eye. And the reflected light from the retina is red because of largely blood vessels in Choroid. It, therefore, gives the Red-eye effect in photograph. 3.4.3 Headlight of Carhttps://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiAocxF-72N5opOqRXLXfd1CGTG9rLUKp6-r6dKPFb2CCaxdW2SiK-wldyw1VDA20N_NWu0IlZu1g8WWnhHJ20fPc4I25V-ajUnk4JWWLyQvahd0Fb0lxmrbUOrUpjQU2iN-3Eg4K2o05dx/s1600/infiniti+headlight.jpg It employs concave parabolic mirrors at the front of the car, which acts as reflectors in the head lights of cars, search lights etc. 3.4.4 Dentists Mirrorhttp://cdn7.fotosearch.com/bthumb/FSA/FSA132/x12292469.jpg Dentists Mirror applies reflection to reflect and focus light on the tooth so that dentists can be examined in detail. 3.4.5 Optical Comparatorhttp://www.worldoftest.com/img/products/qv300_1.jpg Optical Comparator is an instrument that projects a magnified image or profile of a part onto a screen for comparison to a standard overlay profile or scale based on the principles of optics. The comparator, basically, is a non-contact device, which frequently used to measure, test, inspect, gauge or examine parts for compliance with specifications. (A.M.Badadhe, 2006) 3.4.6 Security Convex Mirrorhttp://dgmglass.com/images/mirrors/security/mirror-s-3.jpg One of the distinguish feature of convex mirror is the widely view range. Therefore, convex mirror is applied to act as a security mirror in blind junctions of roads or at corners of walls of bug buildings. The person that is approaching from other side would be shown when the mirror is positioned properly. 3.4.7 Rear-view mirror in an automobilehttp://transport-futures.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/rear-view-mirror.jpg Knowing that the size of image of an object would be smaller when the object comes closer to the convex mirror, this unique feature can be applied to use on automobiles as rear view mirrors so that the diver can clearly view an approaching vehicle. 3.4.8 Submarines PeriscopeC:UsersGaryDesktopreflecting Periscope.png A periscope is a mirror instrument for observation from a concealed position. It works by employing two mirrors at 45o to each other, reflecting light rays from one place to another and finally out to the persons eye. 4 Refraction 4.1 Law of Refraction Qualitatively, when a light wave, which in fact composed of oscillating Electric fields and Magnetic field, crosses from a low optically density medium, say vacuum into a high optically density medium, say glass, E-Field and B-Fields are altered in terms of magnitude and direction of travel by the charges in the glass. Law of refraction, however, can be proved mathematically as follows: The first medium is supposed to be faster than the second medium and the speeds of propagation in 1st medium and 2nd medium are and respectively, where c is the speed of light in vacuum and n1, n2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ 1. C:UsersLenovoDropboxU life2012-13, year2, 1st semesterCCST 9042 The world of wavesSnellslaw_diagram2.png Then, we have to evaluate the time taken by light ray from P to Q, which is Based on Fermats Principle, light travels the path with the least time. Thus, in an attempt to minimize the transit time, we set the derivative of time is zero and we have: By trigonometry, we have As and, we have This is Law of refraction, also known as Snell-Descartes law. NB: Similar to law of reflection, the incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal are co-planar. (Philip D. Straffin, C. T. Benson, 1993) 4.2 Total internal reflection According to Snells law, when a light travels from one a medium with a higher optical density, to a medium with a lower optical density, say from glass to air, it will be refracted away from the normal (i.e. Ray C in Fig 4.2a) and a weak internally reflected ray is, meanwhile, formed (i.e. Ray B in Fig 4.2a) C:UsersGaryDesktopà ¦Ã…“ ªÃƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬ËœÃ‚ ½Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã‚ 33.png Increasing the angle of incidence i increases the angle of refraction r, and at a certain angle of incidence c, called the critical angle, the reflected ray beam just emerges along the surface of the glass and the angle of refraction is 90o (i.e. Ray D in Fig 4.2b). In Fig 4.2 c, as the incident angle is increased continuously above critical angle (i.e. i > c), the refracted angle will be higher than 90o and sin r > 1, which is impossible and no refraction is possible. At this stage the internally reflected ray becomes bright and the refracted ray disappears. Hence, total internal reflection is now said to be occurring since all the incident light is reflected inside the optically denser medium. Mathematically, the critical angle can be found based on Snells law, which is Assume that n1 is refractive index of optically denser medium, n2 is refractive index of optically less dense medium, ÃŽÂ ¸1 is the critical angle of denser medium and ÃŽÂ ¸2 is the angle of refraction in less denser medium. All in all, for Total internal reflection to happen: Light must travel from denser medium to rarer medium. Angle of incidence should be greater than critical angle (i.e. i > c.) 4.3 Thin Lenses Thin lens is a lens that its axial thickness is small compared to the radii of curvature of its surfaces. (I.e. The thickness of the lens is negligible compared with the focal length of the lens) There are mainly two types of thin lenses, Converging thin lenses and Diverging thin lenses. Converging thin lenses, also known as convex lenses, direct parallel light rays bending toward one another after passing through them Diverging thin lenses, or so-called concave lenses, cause parallel light beams to spread as the leave the lens.http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcT6lXrPj04wfnztVlEvIlewlbzvIzhu_60Cup8oDYd840MY3w0SiOxnzxaVrQ 4.3.1 Image Formed by Thin Lenses 4.3.1.1 Convex Lens Ray DiagramFormation of Image by a Convex Lens Object is located between focus and lens The image is: Virtual Erect Magnifiedobject at F1 2. Object is located at focus The image is: Real Inverted Magnified 3. Object is located between focus and F2 The image is:object between F2 F1 Real Inverted Magnified 4. Object is located at F2object between O F2 The image is: Real Inverted Same size as the object 5. Object is located beyond F2object beyond F2 The image is: Real Inverted Diminished 6. Object is located at infinityobject infinity The image is: Real Inverted Highly diminished 4.3.1.2 Concave Lens Ray Diagram 1. Object is located between focus and mirrorconcave lens object F O The image is: Erect Virtual Diminished 2. Object is located between mirror and infinityconcave lens object infinity O The image is: Erect Virtual Diminished 3. Object is located at infinityconcave lens object at infinity The image is: Erect Virtual Diminished 4.3.2 Derivation of the lens formula for thin lenses Gaussian lens formula, also known as lens formula, can be derived as follow: http://www.astarmathsandphysics.com/university_physics_notes/optics/university_physics_notes_proof_of_thin_lens_equation_html_5c3e1e20.gif As, (1) Where O is the size of the object and I is the size of the image. Also, Thus, Combine with (1), we have NB: The Cartesian Sign Convention for thin lens formulas are as follow: Light travels initially from left to right toward the lens. Object distance p is positive for real objects located to the left of the lens and negative for virtual objects located to the right of the lens. Image distance q is positive for real images formed to the right of the lens and negative for virtual images formed to the left of the lens. The focal length f is positive for a converging lens, negative for a diverging lens. The radius of curvature r is positive for a convex surface, negative for a concave surface. Transverse distances are positive above the optical axis, negative below (Katz, 2002) 4.3.3 Power of a Lens The optical power of the lens is used to describe the bending ability of lens in term of power. Basically the power of a lens of focal length f is, Power, in the case, can be expressed in m-1as the unit of power is diopter 1 D = 1m-1 Therefore, if there exists a convex of power 1D, its focal length equals to 1 meter. 4.4 Optical instruments 4.4.1 Prismshttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Light_dispersion_conceptual_waves.gif/330px-Light_dispersion_conceptual_waves.gif Optical prisms are components that commonly used in optical experimental arrangements and optical instruments, with the role of illustrating dispersion of light beams. Rather than showing the complicated mathematical proof such as derivation of minimum deviation, application of prism will be illustrated below. (Thorington, 2009) 4.4.1.1 Prism BinocularsC:UsersGaryDesktopprism.png Prism Binoculars consist of a pair of refracting astronomical telescopes with two totally reflecting prisms (angles 90o, 45o, and 45o) between each objective and eyepiece. Prism A causes lateral inversion and prism B inverts verticallt so that the final image is the same way round and the same way up as the object. (Thorington, 2009) 4.4.1.2 PeriscopeC:UsersGaryDesktoppp.png Periscope, apart from using two reflecting mirror, employs two prisms. Under the occurring of total internal reflection on the hypotenuse, the incident rays and reflected rays are symmetric with regard to a plane orthogonal to the hypotenuse. In the case of normal incidence on one side of the right angle, the incident and reflected beams are orthogonal. 4.4.2 Magnifying Glasshttp://blog.timesunion.com/opinion/files/2011/02/0217_WVinternet.jpg Magnifying glass, also called Simple microscope, consist of a converging lens forming a virtual, upright, magnified image of an object placed inside its principal focus. For an object of height h is viewed at the near point by the unaided eye, the visual angle is, where D is the least distance of distinct visionhttp://www.astarmathsandphysics.com/ib_physics_notes/optics/ib_physics_notes_the_angular_magnification_of_a_magnifying_glass_when_the_image_is_formed_at_the_near_point_html_m367c081d.gif Now the object is placed at distance u from the lens, the visual angle subtended by its image is given by http://www.astarmathsandphysics.com/ib_physics_notes/optics/ib_physics_notes_the_angular_magnification_of_a_magnifying_glass_when_the_image_is_formed_at_the_near_point_html_f9ca6a7.gif The angular magnification is, therefore, given by 4.4.3 Compound Microscope Compound Microscope is a kind of optical instrument that uses visible light and a lens system to magnify images of small samples. C:UsersGaryDesktopcompound micropound.png The lens L1 nearer to the object, called the objective, forms a real, magnified, inverted image I1 of an object O placed just outside its principal focus Fo. I1 is just inside the principal focus Fo of the second lens L2, called the eyepiece, which act as a magnifying glass and produces a magnified, virtual image I2 of I1. In normal adjustment, the final image I2 lies at the near point. Then the visual angle subtended by the final image to the eye is given by When the object of height h is placed at the near point and viewed unaided, the visual angle subtended by the object is given by Hence, the angular magnification is given by And since, the linear magnification is equal to the linear magnification of the objective x linear magnification of the eyepiece. (Giordano, 2011) 4.4.4 Refracting Astronomical Telescope Refracting Astronomical Telescope consists of two converging lenses; one is an objective with long focal length and the other an eyepiece with short focal length. The objective L1 forms a real, diminished, inverted image I1, of a distant object at its principal focus Fo since the rays incident on L1 from a point on such an object can be assumed parallel. The eyepiece L2 acts as a magnifying glass and forms a magnified, virtual image of I1 and, when the telescope is in normal adjustment, this image is at infinity. I1 must, therefore, be at the principal focus F2 of L2, hence F0 and F2 coincide. http://images.tutorvista.com/content/optics/astronomical-telescope-magnifying-power.jpeg From the above figure, we find that The visual angle subtended by the object is given by and the visual angle subtended by the object is given by, where h is the image height. Therefore, the angular magnification is For telescope in normal adjustment, the separation of the two lenses is the sum of the focal lengths. And this, the foci of the objective lens and the eye-piece must be at the same place. (Giordano, 2011) 4.4.5 Galilean Telescopehttp://www.transtutors.com/userfiles/image/ARUN/IMAGES/Gal.JPG Galilean Telescope consists of two lenses a converging objective of large focal length and a diverging eyepiece of small focal length The angular magnification is 5. Conclusion In this term paper, the concepts of geometric optics are included comprehensively such as law of reflection, refraction, formation of images in mirrors and lens, etc. The notion of a light ray and the scientific study of light are involved in a bid to illustrating the working principle of different mirror and optical instruments, such as various telescope, efficiently.